Sanches MJ

ARCHAEOLINGUA Edited by ERZSÉBET JEREM and WOLFGANG MEID Volume 48 THE YAMNAYA IMPACT ON PREHISTORIC EUROPE Volume 7 Series editor VOLKER HEYD THE TRANSFORMATION OF EUROPE IN THE THIRD MILLENNIUM BC PART 1 Proceedings of the International Conference Riva del Garda, Trento, Italy, 25–28 October 2023 Edited by Franco Nicolis, Gabriella Kulcsár, and Volker Heyd BUDAPEST 2025 The publication of this volume was funded by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program, under grant agreement no. 788616 – The Yamnaya Impact on Prehistoric Europe (YMPACT). Front Cover The Maritime Bell Beaker from Ensisheim (Reguisheimer Feld, obj. #8347, Haut-Rhin, France) Photo by Isabelle Déchanez-Clerc, Sélestat Permission: Archéologie Alsace A special thanks to Loïc Jammet-Reynal, Lausanne, and Muriel Roth-Zehner, Sélestat Back Cover Detail of the decorated bottom of the Bell Beaker from Santa Cristina di Fiesse (Brescia, Italy) Photo by Elena Munerati, Trento Permission: Museo delle Civiltà (MUCIV), Rome A special thanks to Livia Stefan, Trento, and Myriam Pierri, Rome ISBN 978-615-5766-84-8 HU-ISSN 1215-9239 HU-ISSN 2786-2968 © The Authors, The Editors, and Archaeolingua Foundation All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any other information storage and retrieval system, without requesting prior permission in writing from the publisher. 2025 ARCHAEOLINGUA ALAPÍTVÁNY H-1067 Budapest, Teréz krt. 13. Cover design: Móni Kaszta Copy editor: Maija Holappa Desktop editing and layout by Rita Kovács Printed by AduPrint Kft. Contents VOLKER HEYD – FRANCO NICOLIS – GABRIELLA KULCSÁR Transformation, Part 1 – Introduction ........................................................................................... 9 PART 1 Origins and significance of the Bell Beaker phenomenon: Paradigms and data MARTIN FURHOLT What if there were no warriors? The relation of concepts and data in Bell Beaker and 3rd millennium BCE research ................................................................................................ 25 VOLKER HEYD Bell Beakers, West and East and both ......................................................................................... 41 JOÃO LUÍS CARDOSO The necropolis of the Verdelha dos Ruivos Cave and the genesis of the Bell Beaker complex in Portuguese Estremadura ............................................................. 71 MARIA DE JESUS SANCHES The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the northwest of Iberia: Current considerations on its chronology, archaeological contexts and ceramic styles ............................................................. 85 ALFREDO MEDEROS MARTÍN – THOMAS X. SCHUHMACHER The first Bell Beakers in the Iberian Peninsula (2650–2550 BC) ............................................. 103 FREDRIK DAHLBERG Chronological insights into Bell Beaker single graves in France .............................................. 127 PART 2 Bell Beaker borderlands: Interaction and transformation in the Central Mediterranean STAŠO FORENBAHER – TIMOTHY KAISER Between beakers and sauceboats: Cetina as culture, style, or phenomenon ............................. 143 GIULIA RECCHIA Cross-cultural encounters and transformation: Overlapping spheres of interactions in the 3rd millennium BC Central Mediterranean ..................................................................................... 161 ELISABETTA BORGNA – GIULIO SIMEONI Impactful maritime and alpine cultural components in the northern Adriatic at the dawn of the Early Bronze Age ......................................................................................... 183 FRANCO NICOLIS – ELISABETTA MOTTES Connections and interactions transcending the eastern border of Bell Beakers in Northern Italy ............................................................................................... 203 6 Contents MAJA GORI Living in the borderlands without perceiving the border: the Bell Beaker phenomenon and the Western Balkans ............................................................ 241 ELENA LEGHISSA The re-definition of the Ljubljana culture in the Ljubljansko barje, based on the chrono-typological point of the ceramic finds ...................................................... 255 PART 3 Bell Beaker ideology, religion, cosmology, ritual and social practice MARC VANDER LINDEN Places of shared belief, places of collective action: On the role of ideologies in the maintenance of the Bell Beaker network ................................ 271 JAN TUREK Reading Bell Beaker decoration motifs ..................................................................................... 283 RALPH GROSSMANN-KLABUNDE A reconsideration of the links between Schönfeld culture and the Beaker phenomena on a local to supra-regional level ......................................................... 293 ENI SORIANO Sex/gender binarism and Bell Beaker funerary norm: A queer approach ................................ 309 KARSTEN WENTINK Travelling through space and time: Burial mounds, stereotypes and Bell Beaker cosmology .................................................................................... 325 RAFAEL GARRIDO-PENA – RAÚL FLORES-FERNÁNDEZ – ANA MERCEDES HERRERO-CORRAL – RODRIGO PAULOS-BRAVO Power and inequality in a time of changes: The Bell Beaker graves of Humanejos (Parla, Madrid, Spain) ................................................. 339 PART 4 Bell Beaker economies, technology, diets and lifeways MIKE PARKER PEARSON Transformations and continuities in subsistence and society: Bell Beaker-users in Britain ..... 355 MARIE BESSE – JESSICA RYAN-DESPRAZ – FLORIAN COUSSEAU – MARTINE PIGUET – CLAUDINE ABEGG When craftspeople move: A social approach to the Bell Beaker societies around the Alps ...... 371 EVE DERENNE – DELIA CARLONI – VINCENT ARD – MARIE BESSE Beakers, jars and megaliths: A history of western Alpine societies and their constellations of practice between 3300 and 1600 BCE ............................................ 389 QUENTIN FAVREL The structure behind Bell Beaker ceramic production: The concept of productions remarquables ................................................................................ 405 Contents 7 JULIEN VITANI Experimental-traceological study of stone “bracers”: Interpreting Bell Beaker stone armplates and cultural change in 3rd millennium BC Europe .................................................... 425 ISABELLA MATERA Bell Beaker lithic industries in northern Italy between local tradition and Bell Beaker innovations: The case of Monte Covolo (Villanuova sul Clisi, Brescia) ................................... 441 GIACOMO CAPUZZO – CHRISTOPHE SNOECK – DIEGO E. ANGELUCCI The EU-funded MOLA project: Mobility and life histories in the Alps – Understanding prehistoric social strategies in mountain environment ...................................... 455 PART 5 Beaker folk versus regional identities OLIVIER LEMERCIER Humans and cups: An archaeological perspective ..................................................................... 469 M. PILAR PRIETO MARTÍNEZ Defining levels of Bell Beaker identity through materiality: Inquiring into the north and northwest of Iberia ........................................................................ 485 NEIL CARLIN Bell Beaker identities in Ireland and beyond: People, places, things and processes ................. 503 ANA CATARINA BASÍLIO – ANTÓNIO CARLOS VALERA We don’t want those pots: Interpreting the Bell Beaker absence at the ditched enclosure of Santa Vitória (Southern Portugal) ................................................... 521 MARCO BAIONI – RAFFAELLA POGGIANI KELLER † – LUCIA SARTI The Bell Beaker in Northern and Central Italy: local traditions, European networks, transformation processes ........................................................................................................... 539 PART 6 Bell Beakers tomorrow: Beaker archaeology at the age of ancient DNA ALISSA MITTNIK – IÑIGO OLALDE – CLAUDIO CAVAZZUTI – WOLFGANG HAAK Tracing the Bell Beaker phenomenon through ancient DNA studies ........................................ 561 IAN ARMIT Mobility, genetics and the Beaker complex in Britain .............................................................. 595 VOLKER HEYD – FRANCO NICOLIS – GABRIELLA KULCSÁR Transformation, Part 1 – Epilogue ............................................................................................. 607 List of contributors .............................................................................................................................. 611 The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the northwest of Iberia: Current considerations on its chronology, archaeological contexts and ceramic styles MARIA DE JESUS SANCHES Abstract Based on a database that organizes the various categories of contexts in the Northwest of Iberia displaying Bell Beaker pottery, this text undertakes a critical analysis focusing on: (i) the contextual and stratigraphic nature as a determinant for interpretation; (ii) the geographical distribution of sites and its socio-economic and ideological expression in regional settlement during the Chalcolithic (3rd millennium BCE); (iii) the social role that Bell Beaker pottery may have played in each category of contexts – funerary and non-funerary (dolmen/mound, open settlement, walled/ditched enclosures, rock shelter/cave, and related to rock art). The stylistics of pan-European and regional pottery are also discussed. 14C dates are correlated with sites and ceramic styles, concluding the multifaceted character of the Bell Beaker phenomenon and its long-term use for more than eight centuries in this region, between the second quarter of the 3rd and the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. Keywords: Bell Beaker, pottery, Galicia, lower Douro basin/North of Portugal, Northwest of Iberia 1. Foreword Northwest Iberia is a geographical region characterised by significant geomorphological and climatic diversity. However, it can be succinctly divided into two distinct areas: a coastal zone with an Atlantic climate, and an inland zone with a more continental one. This region spans two countries: Galicia in Spain and the lower Douro basin in Northern Portugal. The climatic tendency of the inland region in Galicia reveals more humid/Atlantic ecosystems, whereas northern Portugal exhibits a sub-Mediterranean climate. The study of Bell Beaker in this region can’t be treated as an autonomous research program, but rather as one that would focus on the aspects of the manufacture and use of different materialities that integrate the material and conceptual “building” of the agropastoral communities of the 3rd and beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE, as has been argued by several authors (e.g., F -V –V V 2004; B 2011; S –B 2018a; 2018b). In this way, by highlighting the Bell Beaker pottery contexts here, we will relate it, whenever possible, to other conclusions regarding the Late Prehistoric settlement in this region. Between 2016 and 2018, we wrote several texts on the Bell Beaker ceramics of Northern Portugal/ lower Douro basin, mainly based on published documentation, while also discussing contexts and absolute dates in neighbouring regions, particularly Galicia (Spain) (S –B 2018a; 2018b). Since 2018, published contexts related to new Bell Beaker findings have been sporadic, and none of these included absolute dates in layers unquestionably connected to beaker pottery. Nevertheless, we would like to point out that the selection of Bell Beaker pottery which occurs in classic maritime styles (linear, 86 Maria de Jesus Sanches herringbone), comb-geometric, Palmela/Ciempozuelos, AOC, mixed C/ZM styles and Bell Beakerrelated regional stylistics – seems to be the most reasonable option to study the Bell Beaker problem in this region, as it is only marginally associated with other materials, especially copper weapons (Palmela points and daggers), or even tool-weapons (C -C et al. 2010) (prickers, chisels, and knives) commonly connected with this ceramic in other European regions. The same applies to the very rare items of personal adornment, particularly small strips, or beads of gold, which also occur in funerary contexts and in places of significant social use or community aggregation (e.g., Buraco da Pala rock shelter). In the aforementioned publications, we have discussed various issues based on quantitative and qualitative data relating both to stylistic groups in ceramics and to categories of archaeological sites. While the conclusions on the decorative stylistics of ceramics remain roughly the same, this is not the case with the quantitative assessment of sites and their geographical distribution. By including the territory of Galicia and a new generic category of sites – settlement areas and findings – we can propose new interpretative hypotheses which, in any case, only future research will be able to confirm or refute. 2. So many sites with Bell Beaker pottery in Northwest Iberia The last few decades of archaeological work, carried out mainly in the territory of Galicia (Spain), have yielded a considerable amount of new data regarding the occupation of this region during Prehistory. These studies have also revealed that the presence of Bell Beaker pottery, significant in both quantity and diversity of sites, has provided evidence of a new aspect of the settlement of this sub-region of Northwest Iberia (P -M 2013). As we‘ll discuss throughout this article, a reasonable number of archaeological works – especially systematic prospecting and drilling in the context of rescue archaeology – have influenced both the organisation and the stratigraphic/contextual interpretation of this data. We point out, straight away, that this type of rescue archaeology hasn’t had the same prevalence in the northern Portugal sub-region, which partly explains the main quantitative differences. Therefore, as a starting point, it is important to characterise, even if only in general terms, the sites where Bell Beaker ceramics were recovered, regardless of the site‘s conservation conditions, or the archaeological methodologies used to collect them. We begin by presenting the sites/contexts organised into three rough categories: funerary (all kinds of funerary deposition), settlement (all kinds of settlement), and settlement areas & findings, which are represented in Fig. 1 and Table 1 (see Fig. 3). For now, let‘s emphasise the category that exhibits the highest number of sites, particularly in Galicia: settlement areas and findings. Settlement areas are those detected mainly through survey or very limited excavation (drilling). They partially fall into the category of “dispersions”/scatterings and discrete “activity areas”, as described by L -S (2022), and provide a reasonable amount of ceramic and lithic archaeological material, indicating that these are likely non-funerary but rather areas of routine occupation, whether permanent, cyclical, or seasonal. Regarding the conditions of the site, “…It is common for “scatterings” to surface after natural erosive processes or soil disturbances caused by various works, although they have also been recorded during archaeological surveys” (L S 2022, 147; our translation). Given the high number of scatterings of archaeological material from the late Prehistory in Galicia, it should be noted that about 25% of those and 40% of the drilled discrete activity areas contain Bell Beaker pottery (L -S 2022, 148; 156). However, they could have belonged to one of the four categories of settlement sites presented in Fig. 2 and Table 2 (see Fig. 3). We believe that the image of northern Portugal would be similar in this category of sites if the same type of rescue archaeological work had been carried out in this sub-region. In other words, the distortion would be caused mainly because Portugal and Spain effectively apply different rescue archaeology policies, despite being governed by similar laws. Findings refer to casual discoveries, The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the northwest of Iberia 87 Fig. 1. Northwest Iberia Region: all types of archaeological sites with Bell Beaker ceramics, considering three main categories: red – funerary; orange – settlement; green – settlement areas & findings. (Data collected from: J 2002; B 2011; B – L 2013; P -M 2013; S –B 2018a; 2018b; B –R 2020; B –O 2022; L -S 2022; and other unpublished data from the Inventario Xeral de la Dirección Xeral de Patrimonio Cultural (DXPC) of Galicia, kindly provided by Lorenzo-Salgueiro. Map created by M. Corga) occurring for more than a century, usually made by non-archaeologists or amateur archaeologists, and therefore lack any stratigraphic context. This quantitative data, along with that contained in Fig. 2 and Table 2, is starting to change the image of the Bell Beaker material phenomenon in the region of Northwest Iberia, which seems to have been less exceptional than previously thought. However, we must bear in mind that, since this is a long-term phenomenon, as we have argued (S –B 2018a), this evaluation based on the presence/ absence of sites can hide realities and contextual situations that may have varied not only with sociopolitical and ideological circumstances, but also with chronology. Of the five categories in Table 2 (and Fig. 2), the deposition of Bell Beaker vessels (and/or fragments) in barrow/mound and dolmens and their surrounding activity areas – e.g., Leandro (Porto), Dombate (Coruña) and Santa Catalina (Pontevedra) (L -G 2011, V -L 2011) – almost entirely occurs under circumstances of secondary or tertiary uses. This suggests that, in half of the best-studied contexts (which are the funerary), these ceramics hold a high social value because they are anchored in 88 Maria de Jesus Sanches Fig. 2. Northwest Iberia Region. Five categories with beaker ceramics are considered: red – funerary (dolmen/mound); orange – settlement; white – walled and ditch enclosure; pink – rock shelter/cave; green – settled areas related to rock art (engravings). One of the walled enclosures (Fraga da Pena) and one of the rock shelters (Buraco da Pala) are related to rock paintings, but we haven‘t included them in that category here. (Data taken from the bibliography cited in Fig. 1. Map created by M. Corga) the power of the ancestors who “carry” the local and regional ancient tradition. Nevertheless, due to the intrusive and highly variable nature of their ritualised deposition practices – evidenced by inconsistent associations between different pottery typologies and deposition areas – it is difficult to assess the degree of political integration they mirror and the level of ideological conflict that will be occurring in the social context. The subcategories into which we‘ve divided the settlements (open settlement, walled/ditched enclosures, rock shelter/cave, and related to rock art) refer especially to the nature of the site and its archaeological structures, and less to functionality (Fig. 3). More than half of the open settlements have undergone archaeological excavations, showing that a large number correspond to sites of long-term occupation e.g., Zarra de Xoacín, O Fixón, a Pataqueira, a Pita, A Devesa do Rei/Galicia (L -S 2022) and Pastoria, Vila Pouca de Aguiar/Portugal (J 1986), Pedreira, Regadas (T 2018). Nevertheless, in most of them, principally in Galicia, the Bell Beaker pottery appears “associated” with other ceramics in unclear stratigraphic layers. As already noted, the combination of millennia of human pressure on the soil throughout the coastal The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the northwest of Iberia 89 Fig. 3. Archaeological sites with Bell Beaker pottery in Northwest Iberia. Table 1 is related to Fig. 1, and Table 2 to Fig. 2 region of Northwest Iberia (Galicia and Portugal) – intensive agriculture, forestation, construction – combined with erosion and post-depositional processes, means that most of the open settlements have not preserved vertical stratigraphy. Instead, archaeological materials from the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE (and other periods) are found mixed in the geological “horizon” B (which is sometimes quite thick). Thus, most of these settlements are ‘accumulation areas’, i.e. areas where archaeological material has been accumulated successively over time. It is in the structures excavated from the geological soil (ditches, pits/holes, etc.) where, exceptionally, the most reliable associations are found. We realise from the outset that the reason for not accepting many of the 14C dates from these contexts is due to these stratigraphic circumstances, and due to the presupposition, that the Bell Beaker pottery is a “director fossil”, and therefore should belong to the second half of the 3rd and early 2nd millennium BCE. This “Bell Beaker Chalcolithic period” would follow on from the “pre-Bell Beaker Chalcolithic period”, based on other ceramic “director fossils”: Penha ceramics for the coastal area; incised and impressed ceramics with various matrices, but above all Penteada (comb-incised), for the more inland region of the lower Douro basin. Naturally, we do not concur with this presupposition. Regarding walled and ditched enclosures, there is a big difference between the coastal region and the inland: walled enclosures, or monumental precincts, are characteristic of the latter region, but the numerical difference found between Portugal and the inland of Galicia may reflect different research strategies. It is in the interior of Portugal that specific projects have been carried out to intentionally study these monumental precincts. We believe that some Iron Age “castros” throughout the Northwest Iberian region may be hiding Chalcolithic open settlements and/or walled enclosures with Bell Beaker pottery 90 Maria de Jesus Sanches Fig. 4. Bell Beaker vessels: classic international (ZM) and comb-geometric; penteada (comb-incised). 1–2, 5. Penedo do Com dolmen (P 2021; courtesy of Arqueohoje & Lda); 3–4. Pastoria settlement (J 1986); 6–9. Buraco da Pala 1 rockshelter (S 1997). (Image by J. Teixeira) The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the northwest of Iberia 91 or without it (as was confirmed at Crasto Palheiros) (S 2016). Even so, 7.4% of the settlements (Fig. 3) have evident monumentality, i.e. a high and continuous social investment in the construction and continuous alteration of architectural structures together with the creation of formalised spaces. Although the occupation of rock shelters and caves is less significant, it is nonetheless important insofar as the Portuguese cases that provide the most data (Buraco da Pala rock shelter and Lorga de Dine cave) show that they are late prehistoric sites that have been used for a long time, being identical by nature, and whose functions of social aggregation are clearly evident in the quantity and variety of artefacts, particularly the extremely decorated ceramics (S 2016) (Fig. 4). The close spatial (but not stratigraphic) relationship of these pottery together with engraved rock art affects the coastal zone, defining aggregation sites (probably seasonal or calendarized), particularly in Ferradura (Ourense) (P -M 2013) and Bouça da Cova da Moura (Maia) (B et al. 2012). As these are also sites whose rock style tradition dates to at least the middle to late Neolithic, the appropriation of these sites with practices involving the use of Bell Beaker ceramics can be understood as being in the material continuity of millenary identity traditions, despite this continuity of practices having many socio-political facets. Although it doesn‘t appear in Figs. 2 and 3, Bell Beaker and/or standardized international and/or Bell Beaker related styles of ceramics can be found in two sites with schematic paintings of the inland: Fraga da Pena’s granitic ceremonial precinct (one panel) (V 2007, 250), referring to the first case; and the rock shelter of Buraco da Pala (4 panels), referring to the second (S 2016). 3. Some notes on decorative stylistics in pottery The Bell Beaker pottery stylistic synthesis is documented in the works of P. P M and collaborators (P -M 2013; S -V et al. 2013) in the case of Galicia, and of M. S and H. B (2018a; 2018b) in the Portuguese case. Although the criteria followed are not the same, they allow us to advance a general framework. In this region, all pan-European decorative styles are observed, alongside highly standardised vessels with S‘-shaped profiles, well-finished with a glossy surface, and extensively decorated, predominantly with comb impressions (Figs. 4–5). These include AOC, C/ZM, Herringbone/ZM, and Linear Variety (LV) decorations, which occur in all categories of sites considered in this text. It should be noted that the corded ware (AOO and C/ZM) is primarily found on vessels of notable elegance, totalling nine contexts. AOO is found in two inland locations: the Arca dos Penedos (Orense) rock shelter, and the Castelo Velho F. N. (Guarda) walled enclosure. The C/ZM variety occurs in the remaining seven contexts belonging to both the inland and coastal zones, although predominantly in the latter. It appears in two dolmens/barrows: Forno dos Mouros (Coruña), and Ermida (Porto) (Fig. 5); in four open settlements: Alto de S. Cosme, Monte de Marxos, Fontenla, and Gándaras de Budiño (all in Pontevedra); and in the ditched enclosure of Forca (Porto). It is likely that the AOO or C/ZM styles were not recognised in cases where the fragments have highly deteriorated surfaces. Regarding all the Bell Beaker contexts and in accordance with A. B and S. L (2013), we would argue that an empirical verification of the “open settlements” category is necessary, as it may refer to sites of a very varied nature, potentially including functional areas of a peculiar character (e.g., commensality, negotiation/aggregation), as we have suggested in Pastoria (Chaves) (Fig. 4.3, 4) (S –B 2018a). The Herringbone/ZM and LV styles are also present in all types of contexts (Figs. 4.2, 5; 6.2, 5; 9.1, 2). Geometric stylistics is extremely diverse, as it includes a wide range of decorations with zoned or unzoned areas, both punched and printed (with different matrices, including cane and shell) (Figs. 4.1, 3; 6.3, 6–7). Additionally, Bell Beaker -related styles (international and Palmela/Ciempozuelos) are 92 Maria de Jesus Sanches Fig. 5. Funerary context of Mamoa da Ermida, with a group of 3 vessels. The first with maritime linear decoration (M/L), the second undecorated, and the third in maritime cord/zoned style (C/ZM). On the right, two photos taken during archaeological excavation of the hole (“covacho”) in the mound, (B –O 2022; courtesy of Arqueologia & Património). (Image by J. Teixeira) noteworthy both in decorative organisation and vessel form (cups, tall bowls, hemispherical bowls, etc.) (Fig. 6.4, 8; Fig. 10). In the inland region, the comb-incised technique, used since the Late Neolithic, frequently defines zoned areas, reflecting an iconographic absorption of international styles, primarily derived from ZM (Fig. 4.4, 6–9), but also from the Linear Variety (LV). This comb-incised technique, along with those punched/printed with several different matrices, can be applied to bell-related forms, resulting in a great diversity of patterns (Fig. 6.6). In Galicia, shell impressions are numerically prominent, forming zoned areas; other very diverse decorations fall into the broader geometric group. The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the northwest of Iberia 93 Fig. 6. Vessels from Crasto de Palheiros, eastern and northern Upper Platform/Upper enclosure. 2, 5. international/herringbone/ZM style; 1, 3, 6–7. geometric style; 4, 8. incised Bell Beaker related to the Palmela and Ciempozuelos types (belonging to the local stylistic group I1a). (Image by J. Teixeira) We observe that in both inland and coastal zones, previous traditions continue in regard to techniques. In the latter region, in the Dombate dolmen, during phase II “Mid-Neolithic / last third of the 4th millennium BCE: 3713–3363 BC” (…) “there is a fine carinated vessel with metope decoration made using Hinia reticulata” (B -D –L G –P -M 2013, 24). Thus, the use of shell in configuring a standard Penha was already in practice prior to the Bell Beaker phase (which is III/IV). Decorations related to the Palmela/Ciempozuelos group, predominantly incised, define very different patterns, allowing the elaboration of various local typological groups, but not regional ones. They occur on vessels with more angular profiles than the standard bell, on tall bowls with a predominantly angular profile, and on semi-spherical bowls. Decorations made with nail impressions (ungulated), hollow cane, 94 Maria de Jesus Sanches or punches, are also used, although more infrequently, but they are well represented on Fraga da Pena (see Fig. 9). Undecorated vessels are rare in any of the context categories, possibly because they are often not identified as such due to the high degree of fragmentation. 4. On absolute chronology and its relationship with the different categories of contexts The 14C-dates collected from reliable contexts are presented in Fig. 7 and pertain to all types of sites. Their careful selection, following an evaluation of the published contexts, is entirely our responsibility, especially those from settlements in Galicia. According to this table, we argue, as in previous publications (S –B 2018a), that the contexts with Bell Beaker ceramics in this region can be chronologically framed at least between the Fig. 7. Representation of 14C dates contextually related to beaker pottery, (calibrated at 2Ϭ). Funerary: Dombate, Cotogrande 5, Chã de Parada 1, Forno dos Mouros 5; open settlement: Saídos das Rozas, A Gándara, Lavapés, A Lagoa, A Chan do Coiro, O Fixon, Setepias, Fuxino, Devesa do Rei; ditched enclosure: Montenegro, Forca; walled enclosure/monumental precinct: Crasto de Palheiros, Fraga da Pena; rock shelter: Buraco da Pala. Our selective collection was carried out in the following bibliography: F -V – R – V 2007; S 2008, figs. 1–5; P -M 2013, table 3; B – L 2013; S –B 2018a, figs. 2–3; L -S 2022, tables 14 and 19. The calibration and graphics were carried out using Oxcal v. 4.4 (B R 2009; 2021), using the Intcal2020 curve (R et al. 2020). The infographic was also worked on using Inkscape. (Image by A. Santos) The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the northwest of Iberia 95 Fig. 8. Diagram illustrating the long chronology of the bell beaker “phenomenon” in Northwest Iberia, regarding the use of ceramics in a variety of archaeological contexts: funerary (dolmen/barrow and their surrounding area of activity), precincts/walled-ditched enclosures, and open settlements. (Image by M. de Jesus Sanches) mid-28th century BCE and the mid/late 19th century BCE (i.e. between the second quarter of the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE (see Figs. 7–8), as has been argued for other regions of the Iberian Peninsula: Meseta (D G –V R 2007–2008) and Tagus estuary (C 2019). It is therefore a long-lasting material and cultural phenomenon since it takes place over around 8 to 9 centuries. It is chronologically anchored in the regional Chalcolithic period, both in terms of chronology and the diversity of archaeological sites that regionally characterise this chronologicalcultural period. Nevertheless, apart from one singular case, Mamoa 1 of Chã do Carvalhal (Serra da Aboboreira) (C 1992; S –B 2018a), it does not affect the new regional funerary contexts, in cist and/or burial pit, that will manifest in this region during the second half of the 3rd and early 2nd millennium BCE. It is observed that in the oldest chronologies, Bell Beaker ceramics are present in the following 14 C-dated contexts. In funerary contexts (dolmen/barrow): Dombate III/IV both in its closure phase and in the occupation of the surrounding area; in open settlements: Saídos das Rozas; in ditched enclosures: Montenegro; walled enclosures: Crasto de Palheiros monumental precinct; and in one rock shelter: Buraco da Pala 1 (S 2016). Generally, it is assumed that the tradition of depositing ceramics in tumuli and dolmens continued in the second half of the 3rd millennium, gradually being replaced by other local ceramics, especially undecorated ones. The same seems to be happening in walled enclosures, particularly in cases where they extend into the early 2nd millennium BCE (Castelo Velho de Freixo de Numão). Bell Beaker ceramics seem to have lasted longer, at least in some open settlements (e.g., Setepias, Fuxino, and Devesa do Rei), as indicated by absolute chronology or their association with copper weapons and utensils, such as at Pastoria (without 14C-dates), where a pricker, a chisel, and a curved knife, all made of arsenical copper, were recovered. However, it is in this more temporally advanced Bell Beaker phase (Late Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age) an ex-novo walled enclosure/ ceremonial precinct appears: Fraga da Pena (between ca. 2280–1900 BC) (V 2007). The ex-novo cist burial with barrow: Mamoa 1 de Cha de Carvalhal, even without 14C-dates, must also belong to this more recent phase, since, along with several Bell Beaker vessels, it has in its tumulus two separate, and formally structured, depositions of copper weapons (5 Palmela points in one and 2 daggers in the other) (C 1992; S –B 2018a, figs. 3–5). These are instruments whose typology and metal composition are characteristic of this late period. Therefore, the eventual “Bell Beaker package”, 96 Maria de Jesus Sanches including ceramics and standardised weapons, will most likely be a phenomenon of the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE in the lower Douro basin. The more recent dates of settlements such as Fuxino or Setepias (Galicia) may indicate the use of regional styles of bell beaker pottery that persisted until the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. 5. Discussion and conclusion Despite the interpretations summarized in this text having been already published in previous works, what we have introduced here is the issue of the quantitative increase in Bell Beaker sites nearly doubling in Galicia, especially in the coastal area/province of Pontevedra (Fig. 1). Even though these are mainly in the context of rescue archaeology, if similar systematic survey strategies (along with drillings) and extensive excavations had been conducted in Portugal, we would expect, we believe, similar results. In all, all the categories of general sites/contexts considered in this text are present throughout the coastal area of Northwest Iberia. Based on this data alone, it could be argued that the Bell Beaker “phenomenon” could have had a more significant expression in this area, a hypothesis that should be considered in future research. However, if we exclude the dolmen/mound contexts, where research is similar and has yielded similar results throughout the Northwest of Iberia, in its innermost region we find that Bell Beaker ceramics form part, to a greater or lesser extent, of the ceramic assemblage of more than half of the settlements (all kinds of settlement) whenever a more extensive excavation has been carried out in each of them. To understand the actual impact of this type of ceramic on the social and ideological dynamics of regional settlements – considering the stylistics and the percentage weight within each context – a quantitative and qualitative comparison of all sites from the 3rd and 2nd millennium (Late Neolithic/ Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age) throughout Northwest Iberia would also need to be conducted. Although this has not yet been done, the available data suggest a wide diversity of situations that we are still far from fully comprehending. In the inland region of the Lower Douro basin/Northern Portugal (close to the Meseta/Spain), tumulation in dolmens/barrows is rare compared to the coastal region. Nevertheless, Bell Beaker pottery is equally ancient in both sub-regions if we also consider non-funerary contexts. Referring only to the 14C-dated contexts, we hypothesize that, in its earliest phase, in the second quarter of the 3rd millennium BCE, Bell Beaker ceramics were primarily associated with community aggregation sites of an established identity tradition: dolmens (e.g., Dombate, Cotogrande 5, Chã de Parada 1); monumental precincts/enclosures (e.g., Montenegro, Crasto de Palheiros, Forca); and rock shelters (e.g., Buraco da Pala), where they performed socially significant roles related to consumption and ritual deposition. In other words, in sites related to the creation of increasingly complex social orders, or (social) segments, as a result of the growing complexification of pastoral and agricultural societies. Or even with their transformation and disintegration, in accordance with the economic and social dynamics of local and regional contexts. It should be emphasized that the large number of walled enclosures in the interior region of the lower Douro basin/North of Portugal – except for Fraga da Pena which is of more recent chronology – may have had social practices involving Beaker pottery. The corded vessel (AOO) from Castelo Velho de Freixo de Numão could hypothetically fit into this context. Additionally, it is observed that in various contexts during this early period, the more transregional and even international ceramic forms and styles are mixed at the same site, showing hybridization in decorative aspects, as is the case of Crasto de Palheiros and Castanheiro do Vento. This indicates a rapid acceptance and integration of new fashions The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the northwest of Iberia 97 in contexts that have already displayed significant openness to new ideas and forms since approximately the last quarter of the 4th millennium BCE. In the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE, absolute dating indicates ongoing deposition within dolmens and their surrounding areas of communal activity (e.g., Dombate). It is possible that some mound depositions also occurred during this period. From the mid-3rd millennium BCE onwards, regional burial practices (both inhumation and/or cremation) ceased to be monumental, predominantly settling in underground (grave holes or “fossas” and cists) even though no Bell Beaker ceramics have ever been uncovered in these contexts. Indeed, both at Fraga do Zorro (Orense) (P -M et al. 2009) and at Tapado da Caldeira (Porto) (J 1980), Bell Beaker pottery does not unequivocally associate with their graves excavated in the geologic soil. Therefore, we interpret these sites as open settlements with diverse ceramics, including Bell Beaker, found within a single, stratigraphically disturbed layer. In subsequent uses, likely within a short chronological sequence, some of these various domestic structures (“fossas”) may have been used for funerary purposes at Fraga do Zorro or excavated anew (in both settlements). The Mamoa 1 of Chã de Carvalhal, already mentioned, shows another aspect of the hybridization between millennial constructive tradition (megalithic cist in mound) and the new social dynamics of this later phase, likely indicating that the deposition of weapons associated with Bell Beaker pottery in dolmens (e.g., Orca de Seixas) only occurred in this phase. Thus, the eventual “Bell Beaker package”, including ceramics and standardized weapons, although rare and not exclusively funerary, will most likely be a phenomenon of the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE in Northwest Iberia. Given the difficulty in dating engraved weapons (particularly daggers, halberds, and even Palmela points) found both in coastal and inland areas, and their lack of association with Bell Beaker pottery, we must exercise caution in interpreting them, whether chronologically or socio-anthropologically. These are “assemblages” of materials that typically exclude each other. The extremely rare associations of these artifacts found in dolmens and settlements suggest yet another facet of this diversity, one that requires further study to be fully understood. Some structured deposits of vessels within mounds – e.g., Santa Catalina (Pontevedra) (V L 2011) or Mamoa da Ermida (Porto) (B –O 2022) – in this later case in a small hole (“covacho”) with a group of three vessels (Fig. 5), may have occurred throughout the long period of Bell Beaker in this region. Furthermore, the Fraga da Pena monumental walled enclosure suggests that community aggregation sites could be newly created in some regions between the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE. Considering the significant presence of Bell Beaker ceramics in this monumental precinct (Fig. 9), where they represent almost all decorated ceramics, it is possible that in the late 3rd millennium BCE (Early Bronze Age), in certain specific sites, Bell Beaker ceramics still constituted part of new entities linked to a new social order seeking acceptance. The contexts with engraved or painted rock art each probably held a plurality of functions, which again highlights cyclical/ calendarized social aggregation (S -V –P -M 2013). 14 C dating indicates that open-air settlements also show occupations both in the second quarter of the 3rd millennium BCE (e.g., Devesa do Rei, A Gándara), and in the second half of the 3rd / early 2nd millennium BCE (Lavapés, A Lagoa, Setepias, Fuxiño), making it difficult to assess whether, quantitatively, this latter period reveals a greater density of sites. As previously pointed out, the problems caused by stratigraphic and charcoal samples conservation in archaeologically reliable contexts prevent us from truly understanding the evolution of the Bell Beaker in terms of routine life contexts (“domestic”) over this extended period, which seems to have greatly exceeded eight centuries. Nonetheless, we can suppose that Bell Beaker ceramics, although always in limited numbers, gradually became more familiar and more recurrently used in all types of contexts within the communities’ lives 98 Maria de Jesus Sanches Fig. 9. Vessels from Fraga da Pena Precinct (V 2007, fig. 5, 24–26). 1. linear (dotted); 2. herringbone; 3–5. nail impressed; 6. without decoration. (Image by J. Teixeira.) Fig. 10. Bell Beaker regional stylistics related to the Palmela and Ciempozuelos types. Above: Crasto de Palheiros incised (Type 8 and hemispheric) vessels (I1a). Below: Lorga de Lorga de Dine cave, highlighting the fragment with careful inlay of white paste (S –B 2018a; 2018b) (Image by J. Teixeira) The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the northwest of Iberia 99 during the end of the 3rd and the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. This statement is also supported by the most recent studies on the settlement of Late Prehistory in Galicia (L -S 2022; L -S – R -R – F -V 2022), which reveal that the settlement related to the Bell Beaker, besides occurring in areas with a high density of domestic sites, is characterized by the dual aspect of intensive and extensive occupation of the territory, regarding the exploitation and visual/topographical dominance of the landscape. The trend indicates widespread occupation of mountainous areas, where the settlements strategically dominate the surrounding territory. This likely led to a new model of settlement, possibly semi-nomadic, that occurs alongside the more intensive occupation of valleys. In both, a potential mountain/valley complementarity through seminomadism is also considered (L -S 2022, 203–204). 6. Closing words Despite the prolonged presence of the Bell Beaker in Northwest Iberia it did not ‘unify’, from a sociological or ideological point of view, the communities of the Chalcolithic (3rd millennium BCE), and even less so those of the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. On the contrary, it was part of the regional historical process of socio-political and ideological development that had its roots in the late Neolithic. Even with the notable increase in medium and long-distance exchange systems, which began in the Neolithic and intensified from the beginning of the 3rd millennium BCE onwards, this period displays significant regional variations concerning the material record of which Bell Beaker pottery is an integral part. However, if the network of relations with the littoral/Atlantic and the interior of the Iberian Peninsula is evident – and manifests itself to a greater or lesser degree in the same archaeological sites – it calls for non-simplistic explanations. These explanations must first be based on empirical analyses of regional contexts, a topic to which we hope this text has contributed. The subtle ideological and socio-organisational changes observed during this long period do not seem to have resulted from exchange systems involving Bell Beaker vessels or weapons. It is undeniable, however, that a high social value was quickly attributed to these ceramics, so highly standardised in their form and decoration. This fact is archaeologically evident (i) by their deposition in communally significant contexts, whether funerary or simply of communal aggregation, during the early Middle Chalcolithic; (ii) by the rapid acceptance, during the same initial phase, of their iconography and form. This which resulted in the production, in the same contexts, of vessels that drew both the pan-European world and from the decorative styles of local tradition. Acknowledgements I would like to thank: Mónica Corga / Uniarq / Morph, Joana Castro Teixeira / CITCEM / FLUP and André Santos / CEAACP / FLUC, for their help in the preparation of the figures; C. Lorenzo-Salgueiro / Santiago de Compostela University, for many of the data from Galicia; Helena Barbosa / CITCEM / FLUP, for the preparation of the communication presented in Riva del Garda, and João Francisco Sanches for reviewing the English translation of this text. 100 Maria de Jesus Sanches References BAPTISTA, L. – OLIVEIRA, L. 2022 A intervenção arqueológica na Mamoa da Ermida. In: Moreira, A. – Baptista, L. – Oliveira, L. – Vale, N. (eds.): A Mamoa da Eireira. Santo Tirs 2022, 23–50. BASÍLIO, A. C. – RAMOS, R. 2020 Come together: o conjunto megalítico das Motas (Monção, Viana do Castelo) e as expressões campaniformes do Alto Minho. In: Arnaud, J. M. – Neves, C. – Martins, A. (eds.): Arqueologia em Portugal 2020 – Estado da Questão. Lisboa 2020, 885–898. BELLO-DIÉGUEZ, J. 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Pontevedra 2011, 111–118. List of contributors Part 1 Part 2 Martin Furholt Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Germany ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9998-6065 [email protected] Stašo Forenbaher Independent scholar, Croatia ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9119-4183 [email protected] Volker Heyd University of Helsinki, Finland ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0889-6513 volker.heyd@helsinki.fi João Luís Cardoso University of Algarve / Centre for Archaeological Studies of the Municipality of Oeiras, Portugal [email protected] Maria de Jesus Sanches University of Porto & CITCEM, Portugal ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2643-2325 [email protected] Alfredo Mederos Martín Autonomous University Madrid, Spain ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0036-7940 [email protected] Thomas X. Schuhmacher German Archaeological Institute, Madrid Department, Germany / Spain ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6735-1997 [email protected] Fredrik Dahlberg University of Gothenburg, Sweden ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0328-7604 [email protected] Timothy Kaiser Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Canada ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0009-0004-5248-7815 [email protected] Giulia Recchia Sapienza University of Rome, Italy [email protected] Elisabetta Borgna University of Udine, Italy ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9342-6718 [email protected] Giulio Simeoni University of Udine, Italy ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-9246-478X [email protected] Franco Nicolis Ufficio Beni Archeologici of the Autonomous Province of Trento, Italy [email protected] Elisabetta Mottes Ufficio Beni Archeologici of the Autonomous Province of Trento, Italy ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0744-1656 [email protected] Maja Gori Institute of Heritage Science, Italy ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8106-4801 [email protected] 612 List of contributors Elena Leghissa ZRC SAZU Institute of Archaeology, Slovenia ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8078-5914 [email protected] Part 3 Marc Vander Linden Bournemouth University, UK ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0120-7754 [email protected] Ana Mercedes Herrero-Corral University of Valladolid, Spain ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3536-1108 [email protected] Rodrigo Paulos-Bravo Complutense University of Madrid, Spain ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9335-7890 [email protected] Part 4 Jan Turek Charles University Prague, Czechia ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5370-7702 [email protected] Mike Parker Pearson University College London, UK ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7341-121X [email protected] Ralph Grossmann-Klabunde Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Germany ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4319-5421 [email protected] Marie Besse University of Geneva, Switzerland ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4752-9070 [email protected] Eni Soriano Autonomous University Barcelona, Spain ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9566-1925 [email protected] Jessica Ryan-Despraz University of Bern, Switzerland ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0794-4317 [email protected] Karsten Wentink Leiden University / Sidestone Press, The Netherlands [email protected] Florian Cousseau University of Geneva / Durham University, Switzerland / UK ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6542-7094 fl[email protected] Rafael Garrido-Pena Autonomous University Madrid, Spain ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8263-2949 [email protected] Martine Piguet University of Geneva, Switzerland ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2386-8203 [email protected] Raúl Flores-Fernández Regional Government of Castile and León, Spain ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3384-2055 raul.fl[email protected] Claudine Abegg University of Geneva, Switzerland ORCID: https://orcid.org/000-0002-9854-9346 [email protected] List of contributors Eve Derenne University of Geneva / Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Switzerland / Germany ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7169-4976 [email protected] Delia Carloni University of Geneva / University of Groningen, Switzerland / The Netherlands ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1006-8650 [email protected] 613 Part 5 Olivier Lemercier University of Montpellier Paul Valéry, France ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8445-6261 [email protected] M. Pilar Prieto Martínez University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5152-6307 [email protected] Vincent Ard University of Toulouse Jean-Jaurès, France ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5846-4949 [email protected] Neil Carlin University College Dublin, Ireland ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0847-1945 [email protected] Quentin Favrel Éveha Bretagne, France [email protected] Ana Catarina Basílio Municipality of Reguengos de Monsaraz / Interdisciplinary Center for Archaeology and Evolution of Human Behaviour (ICArEHB) / Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7999-3831 [email protected] Julien Vitani Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne University, France [email protected] Isabella Matera University of Florence, Italy [email protected] Giacomo Capuzzo University of Trento / Free University of Brussels, Italy / Belgium ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3477-4170 [email protected] Christophe Snoeck Free University of Brussels, Belgium ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3770-4055 [email protected] Diego E. Angelucci University of Trento, Italy ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7411-261X [email protected] António Carlos Valera ERA Arqueologia SA / Interdisciplinary Center for Archaeology and Evolution of Human Behaviour (ICArEHB), Portugal ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5492-3810 [email protected] Marco Baioni Museo archeologico della Valle Sabbia, Gavardo-Brescia, Italy [email protected] Raffaella Poggiani Keller † Formerly Soprintendenza archeologica della Lombardia, Italy Lucia Sarti University of Siena, Italy [email protected] 614 List of contributors Part 6 Alissa Mittnik Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig / Max Planck-Harvard Research Center for the Archaeoscience of the Ancient Mediterranean, Leipzig and Cambridge, MA / Harvard University, Germany / USA [email protected] Iñigo Olalde University of the Basque Country UPV/ EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz / Ikerbasque – Basque Foundation of Science, Bilbao / Harvard University, Spain / USA [email protected] Gabriella Kulcsár Institute of Archaeology, ELTE Research Centre for the Humanities ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3295-1156 [email protected] Claudio Cavazzuti University of Bologna, Italy [email protected] Wolfgang Haak Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig / Max Planck-Harvard Research Center for the Archaeoscience of the Ancient Mediterranean, Leipzig and Cambridge, MA / Harvard University, Germany / USA ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2475-2007 [email protected] Ian Armit University of York, UK ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8669-3810 [email protected]