Papers by Solar Compass Journal
In Iraqi climatic conditions, the solar collector systems are characterized by high degradation i... more In Iraqi climatic conditions, the solar collector systems are characterized by high degradation in thermal performance that is a result of poor selection of tilt-angle, high dust deposition, high ambient temperatures, aerosol loading, and strong seasonal variations in solar irradiance. These drive down solar radiation absorption, behavior in heat transfer, and overall energy efficiency, and conventional fixed-angle optimization cannot guarantee longterm stable performance in hot-arid environments. In this paper, the researcher suggests an integrated heattransfer and optimization model to be used to determine optimum annual and monthly tilt angles to solar collectors at Baghdad. The model is a combination of solar geometry relations, including the beam radiation ratio (Rb) and total tilted irradiance (HT), and equations of thermal energy balance that include the convective and radiative heat transfer. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Gay Wolf Optimizer (GWO) are two metaheuristic algorithms that are used to optimize tilt-angle scheduling under different environmental conditions. The results of simulation indicate that the optimal annual tilt angle is around 29 • C with the best monthly tilt being close to 0 • C in June-July and 59 • C in December. The monthly optimized approach enhances performance in terms of thermal performance by approximately 12-15% and sensitivity to short-term fluctuations in irradiance and ambient temperature as compared to fixed-tilt systems. The proposed framework offers a convenient balance between simplicity and adaptability, providing better performance without the complex tracking systems and enabling application scale ability to solar thermal systems, PV/T systems, and hybrid systems.
Solar thermal energy is widely applied in domestic and industrial systems, including solar air-he... more Solar thermal energy is widely applied in domestic and industrial systems, including solar air-heating units for drying food, raw materials, and finished products. However, efficient utilisation requires collector designs capable of operating effectively under low solar irradiance conditions associated with cloud cover, mist, fog, or precipitation. This study experimentally investigated triangular transversely corrugated tubes for solar hot-air generation under low solar radiation conditions. Comparative experiments were conducted under controlled laboratory conditions using both corrugated and smooth tubes over a Reynolds number range of 500-5500, covering laminar to turbulent flow regimes. All test tubes had a diameter of 50 mm, a groove pitch of 150 mm, and a total length of 1000 mm, while the corrugation depths were 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 mm. The test section was inclined at 45 • , and artificial solar radiation was supplied by a tungsten-halogen lamp at an intensity of 110 W/ m². The results showed that, at Re = 1335, corresponding to laminar flow conditions, the tube with e = 5.0 mm and e/p = 0.033 achieved the best thermo-hydraulic performance, yielding an air temperature rise of 3.71 K, a Nusselt number of 4.5, and a Thermal Enhancement Factor of 1.26. This represented a 16.67 % improvement over the smooth tube under the same flow condition. These findings demonstrate that triangular transverse corrugation can enhance convective heat transfer under low irradiance and has strong potential for solar drying applications requiring stable and moderate thermal conditions.
Providing reliable, affordable and renewable energy to remote communities remains a challenge. Hy... more Providing reliable, affordable and renewable energy to remote communities remains a challenge. Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems (HRES), combining solar, wind, and energy storage technologies, offer a promising solution. But designing the best system can be challenging given the variability of renewable energy sources, and the need to consider both low cost and high reliability. This challenge needs to be tackled by a step-by-step multiobjective approach that can weigh up these issues while being optimised, rather than the traditional singleobjective methods. This paper proposes a comprehensive new multi-objective approach for designing an independent PV-wind-battery hybrid system. It's based on the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II). The system's operation is simulated for a year with weather information (sunshine, ambient temperature, wind speed) and the usage of a typical community for the correct calculation of the energy balance and reliability. One focus is on making a well-distributed Pareto front, showing how the Net Present Cost (NPC) is traded for the likelihood of losing power supply (LPSP). The investigation reveals LPSP can be reduced with a small increase in initial cost, but getting close to 100% reliability requires a very high cost. Optimum designs are identified for several requirements, from a least-cost to a most-reliable system. This study demonstrates that NSGA-II is useful for supporting sustainable design decisions in HRES planning. It provides the system developer or leader with the best solutions based on the money and technical requirements.
Accurately predicting solar irradiation intervals remains a critical challenge for decision-makin... more Accurately predicting solar irradiation intervals remains a critical challenge for decision-making in the energy management of solar-powered smart microgrids. To cope with the resulting uncertainties, models capable of providing accurate and reliable prediction intervals are essential. This paper proposes a novel hybrid approach combining long short-term memory (LSTM), extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), and an adaptive kernel density estimator (AKDE), whose bandwidth is optimized via differential evolution (DE). By optimizing both the local and global bandwidths of the kernel density estimator, the proposed method generates highly accurate and reliable prediction intervals, demonstrating enhanced robustness. Comparative analyses across multiple evaluation sites reveal that the hybrid model (LSTM-XGBoost-DE-AKDE) outperforms existing models reported in the literature. Specifically, the average PINAW value achieved by the proposed model is substantially lower than that of the KDE-PSO-LSTM model. At the 95% confidence level, the proposed model achieves a PINAW of 0.122 compared to 0.301; at the 90% level, 0.101 versus 0.256; and at the 85% level, 0.083 versus 0.258.
Office buildings control the indoor environment through complex fenestration, shading, and façade... more Office buildings control the indoor environment through complex fenestration, shading, and façade systems, as well as energy-intensive cooling and heating systems. However, current standards often overlook the local thermal effects of solar radiation, leading to inaccurate comfort assessments near windows. Some challenging Open-plan offices, which have a deep floor plan, which means that the area closest to the windows has different environmental conditions to other parts of the office. The difference in conditions implies the need to identify a precise predicted-zone to identify the most suitable users' positions within the working environment, both in terms of thermal comfort and daylight. The methodology relies on a comprehensive simulation framework. This paper, through the statistical analysis of extensive simulation-generated data using Spearman's correlation coefficient and the influence of major external factors (climatic characteristics), followed by an interpolation technique, aims to formulate the definition of a dimensional standardization zone in the office building, called "sensitive zone" as a method framework, where discomfort conditions occur. Comprehensively, a sensitive-zone can be defined as an area where the interaction of daylight and thermal comfort under the influence of direct sunlight is important for designers to achieve an efficient design in offices. To achieve a comprehensive standard formula applicable at all latitudes, three locations (Kuala Lumpur, Tehran, and Stockholm) as basic-locations and 10 locations as validation-locations are selected. The results showed the interpolation (sensitive-zone) varied depending on the latitude and climate condition (the difference around 6 meters). The results showed that the sensitive zone depth is found to range from approximately 1.7 meters in equatorial regions to 7.5 meters in highlatitude locations.
This research investigates the innovative application of multi-source hybrid renewable energy sys... more This research investigates the innovative application of multi-source hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) for electric vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure in Indonesia's urban environments. By combining solar, wind, biomass, hydrogen, and waste-to-energy technologies, the study addresses critical urban energy challenges and highlights the importance of diversifying renewable sources. The findings reveal a remarkable potential to reduce energy costs by 25% to 40% and achieve renewable energy penetration rates above 60%, thereby significantly enhancing the sustainability of urban mobility. Further, integrating advanced energy management strategies, including vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capabilities, optimizes the energy system's efficiency and reliability, achieving operational efficiencies of up to 90% and reducing peak load demand by 15%. The research also emphasizes the vital role of supportive government policies and incentives in facilitating the practical deployment of these systems, advocating for standardized economic assessments to ensure comparability and robustness in evaluation methodologies. With substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions of 40% to 60%, this work not only aligns with Indonesia's decarbonization objectives but also lays the foundation for further empirical studies and interdisciplinary approaches to accelerate the transition towards sustainable urban energy solutions.
While whole-building dynamic simulation programs can accurately predict indoor comfort in buildin... more While whole-building dynamic simulation programs can accurately predict indoor comfort in buildings conditioned by ambient energy (from the sun, sky, air, and ground), skill and time requirements represent a barrier to their widespread use. Simplified design tools present opportunities to establish targets for building characteristics during the predesign phase that promote desired performance, as well as to guide subsequent design refinements. This study uses a first-order model that includes solar gains, internal heat gains, envelope losses, ventilation cooling, and thermal mass. Similitude variables are solar load ratio SLR, internal heat load ratio ILR, ventilation cooling load ratio VLR and thermal time constant (ratio of thermal capacitance to envelope losses) τ. Heating and cooling season energy balances are approximated by 〈ILR〉 + 〈SLR〉 = 1 and 〈ILR〉-〈VLR〉 = 1, respectively, where angle brackets signify temporal averages. Example values necessary to achieve 100% ambient conditioning in sixteen US climate zone are determined. With peak heating losses/cooling gains set to 10 W/m 2 of floor area, and internal heat gains of 3 W/m 2 , January 〈SLR〉 ranging from 0.42 to 1 served heating-dominated climates, while annual VLR up to 98 was required for cooling-dominated climates. Seasonal thermal time constants (ratio of dimensional time constant to total time of ambient source/sink insufficiency) were up to 0.83 for heating-dominated climates and as high as 6 for cooling-dominated climates. A benefit of similitude is that a range of building designs with the same values of the similitude parameters will have identical performance. This response is invaluable for adjusting building characteristics during the design process.
Dual-purpose cooking and drying systems offer a promising solution for sustainable food preparati... more Dual-purpose cooking and drying systems offer a promising solution for sustainable food preparation and preservation, particularly in regions with abundant solar radiation. This systematic review assesses the current state of technology and knowledge gaps in solar cooker cum dryers, focusing on design configuration, thermal performance, and sustainability relevance. A comprehensive search of the databases yielded 13 studies that met the inclusion criteria. The review highlights the strengths and weaknesses of the design configurations. The findings revealed that these systems can achieve temperatures up to 150 • C, making them suitable for cooking and drying applications, which reduces fuel costs and lowers carbon emissions. Limited work has been done on combined solar cookers and dryers, and most studies use the same unit for both cooking and drying, and very few have separate units. All reviewed studies on solar cookers combined with dryers have employed flat plate collectors with no work on concentrating systems, and most studies are experimental with limited numerical work. Most studies employed the natural convection mode of air circulation, with only a few focusing on forced convection. Additionally, most solar cookers combined with dryers lack energy storage systems, and there is limited work that has been reported on the economic analysis of the combined systems. These findings inform future research and development for sustainable energy solutions, providing insights for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners. This review aims to contribute to the development of efficient and effective combined solar cookers and dryers, ultimately enhancing food security and reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) constitute a promising class of third-generation photovoltaic ... more Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) constitute a promising class of third-generation photovoltaic devices characterized by cost-effective fabrication, semi-transparency, and efficient operation under solar illumination. At the core of their photoelectrochemical functionality lies the dye sensitizer, which plays a critical role in dictating photon absorption, interfacial electron injection, and the dynamics of charge separation and recombination. This review presents a comprehensive and mechanistic analysis of recent developments in the molecular engineering of sensitizers, with emphasis on donor-π-acceptor (D-π-A) systems, electronic conjugation strategies, anchoring group optimization, and structural modifications that enhance spectral coverage and energy level alignment with the conduction band of a wide-bandgap semiconductor such as TiO 2. The performance of conventional ruthenium-based complexes is systematically compared to emerging classes of sensitizers, including metal-free organic dyes, porphyrinoid derivatives, quantum dots, and bio-derived chromophores. Structure-property relationships are elucidated in the context of their impact on photovoltaic parameters such as short-circuit current density (J sc), open-circuit voltage (V oc), fill factor (FF), and power conversion efficiency (PCE). Particular attention is given to photostability, with a detailed assessment of degradation mechanisms under thermal, photochemical, and electrochemical stress, as well as molecular and interfacial engineering strategies aimed at improving operational durability. The review further discusses current trends and future perspectives, including co-sensitization approaches, sensitizer design for low-intensity illumination environments, integration with solidstate electrolytes, and computational methods for rational dye screening. Collectively, these insights establish a roadmap for the development of next-generation sensitizers with enhanced efficiency, stability, and applicability in scalable DSSC technologies.
The integration of photovoltaic (PV) systems into smart cities presents both opportunities and ch... more The integration of photovoltaic (PV) systems into smart cities presents both opportunities and challenges in achieving sustainable, cost-effective, and resilient energy solutions. This study proposes a multi-objective optimization model for designing resilient and self-sustaining PV systems, focusing on cost minimization, energy independence, and system reliability. Unlike conventional models that primarily address either economic or operational aspects, the proposed approach offers a comprehensive optimization framework that simultaneously considers energy generation, storage management, and grid interaction. A key innovation of this research is the application of the Greedy Man Optimization Algorithm (GMOA), a novel metaheuristic inspired by greedy decision-making behavior, which is compared against the Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) to evaluate its effectiveness in solving large-scale PV optimization problems. Computational experiments reveal that GMOA consistently outperforms GWO, achieving lower total costs, higher renewable energy utilization, and improved computational efficiency. Sensitivity analysis further demonstrates that increasing energy storage capacity significantly reduces system costs, reinforcing the importance of investment in advanced storage technologies. The findings of this study contribute to the development of scalable, adaptive PV energy management strategies, offering valuable insights for policymakers and energy planners in smart cities. Future research could explore real-time data integration and hybrid optimization techniques to enhance decision-making under dynamic environmental conditions.
The growing global demand for electricity has intensified the need for efficient and sustainable ... more The growing global demand for electricity has intensified the need for efficient and sustainable energy production. While a variety of technologies-ranging from fossil fuels to hydropower, nuclear, and renewables-are utilized for electricity generation, fossil fuel power plants remain predominant. However, the environmental consequences of fossil fuel use, including pollution and global warming, as well as the finite nature of these resources, present significant challenges. In response, there has been a growing focus on alternative energy sources, particularly renewable technologies. Among these, solar photovoltaic (PV) systems have garnered increasing attention due to their availability, low installation and maintenance costs, and low environmental impact. Iran, facing high establishment costs for other types of power plants, is turning to solar energy as a key solution. This article evaluates the feasibility of installing a 100 kW PV power plant at the Science and Technology Park of Islamic Azad University of Najafabad (IAUN) in Iran. The system incorporates both rooftop and floating PV installations. Technical analysis is conducted using PVsyst software, while economic and environmental assessments are carried out with RETScreen software. The results indicate a payback period of 3.4 years, with the system expected to mitigate 109 tons of CO 2 emissions annually.
Solar drying offers a sustainable alternative to conventional drying methods by utilizing renewab... more Solar drying offers a sustainable alternative to conventional drying methods by utilizing renewable energy in a controlled and efficient manner. Integrating phase-change materials (PCMs) into solar dryers enables efficient thermal energy storage, extending drying operations beyond sunlight hours, while improving product quality. This review discusses techno-economic aspects, recent advances related to PCM-based solar dryers in terms of configuration, PCMs being used and strategies adopted to enhance the performance of the same. The review also highlights user satisfaction/acceptance, operational convenience, worldwide adaptation as well as barriers and challenges with respect to the PCM-based solar dryers. A comparative analysis of PCM-based drying applications involving various crops and food products in particular, has also been conducted. Furthermore, some of the commercial solar dryers in the market together with their relevant product information have been presented. The paper concludes with insights into future research directions, including techno-economic feasibility and design optimization.
Solar energy is a key renewable resource, yet synchronizing its production with grid demand remai... more Solar energy is a key renewable resource, yet synchronizing its production with grid demand remains challenging due to irradiance variability. This review systematically examines the evolution of solar irradiance forecasting methods, from physical and numerical weather prediction (NWP) models to modern data-driven and hybrid AIbased approaches. It integrates analyses of All-Sky Imager (ASI) and satellite datasets and categorizes forecasting techniques by temporal horizons from intra-hour to multi-day forecasts. The paper uniquely contributes a comparative taxonomy linking forecast horizon, input data type, and model architecture to accuracy outcomes. The findings highlight the growing benefits of physics-informed deep learning for improving operational solar forecasts.
A lack of adequate postharvest equipment has been a significant cause of food shortages in many d... more A lack of adequate postharvest equipment has been a significant cause of food shortages in many developing countries. In terms of cost, traditional open sun drying appears economical; however, it faces limitations such as being highly labour intensive, exposing products to direct sunlight, and risking quality loss due to pests and animal invasion. Using solar energy to dry these food products is a promising approach that does not compromise their nutritional value. Despite significant advances in solar energy drying systems, the adoption of solar drying remains limited due to low energy efficiency, inconsistent performance under varying weather conditions, and the absence of scalable design frameworks. This review critically examines developments in solar drying technologies from 2020 to 2025, addressing the increasing need for sustainable postharvest processing solutions. It combines technical, environmental, and socioeconomic perspectives to provide a comprehensive overview of current solar drying systems. The analysis reveals a notable shift from traditional dryers to advanced hybrid configurations that incorporate energy storage materials, nanomaterials, ejector heat pumps, and smart control systems. These innovations have greatly improved thermal efficiency, reduced drying times, and preserved product quality. Application-specific customization, guided by computational tools such as CFD, artificial neural networks (ANN), etc. This review serves as a valuable resource for researchers, engineers, and policymakers aiming to scale up solar drying as a climate-resilient, energy-efficient, and economically sustainable solution. It also highlights emerging research trends, identifies key performance indicators, and underscores the importance of integrating computational modeling with sustainability metrics as future directions.
This study presents a comprehensive review on the advancements in solar air heater (SAH) technolo... more This study presents a comprehensive review on the advancements in solar air heater (SAH) technologies with a particular focusing on their integration into smart and energy-efficient. The review also critically examines the role of solar air heaters in thermal management, air quality control, and renewable energy utilization within the built environment. The verified experimental and numerical studies are presented to evaluate the influence of absorber plate geometries, flow configurations, and hybrid integrations-such as phase change materials (PCMs), jet impingement, and multi-pass channels-on system performance. The review study reveals that the geometrically optimized and hybrid SAH designs can increase thermal efficiency from traditional 40–50% levels to more than 80% and significantly reducing energy demand for space heating and lowering CO2 emissions in building applications. Moreover, the economic evaluations discussed in the literature indicated that these systems offer short payback periods and contribute to sustainable energy management in residential and institutional facilities. Finally, this work provides a detailed and critical synthesis of existing research, emphasizing the potential of advanced solar air heaters as a core component in smart, low-carbon building technologies aimed at achieving environmental and energy sustainability goals.
Although rooftop grid-connected solar PV systems (RGCSPVS) play a crucial role in the global ener... more Although rooftop grid-connected solar PV systems (RGCSPVS) play a crucial role in the global energy transition to mitigate climate change, reactive power imbalance remains a significant power quality challenge, intensifying as the system approaches its optimal penetration limit. This study examines the amount of reactive power an optimally sized GCSPVS can accommodate without exceeding voltage limits. A Python-based dynamic programming approach placed optimally, shunt capacitor (SC) targeting high loads, voltage drops, and losses nodes. The Conditional New Adaptive Foraging Tree Squirrel Search Algorithm (CNAFTSSA) otherwise applied to determine the most effective SC injection locations. In the high-load scenario, 46.20 kVAR of SC injection reduced system losses from 72.36 % to 82.87 %, improving the power factor from 0.51 to 0.69. The high-voltagedrop scenario introduced 10.27 kVAR, reducing losses from 71.57 % to 73.03 % and enhancing the power factor from 0.53 to 0.55. For high-loss nodes, 66.73 kVAR reduced losses from 68.21 % to 82.27 % and improved the power factor from 0.31 to 0.68. The CNAFTSSA scenario injected 65.70 kVAR, reducing losses from 68.34 % to 82.88 % and improving the power factor from 0.31 to 0.67. These results highlight SCs' role in minimizing losses and enhancing power quality, with the CNAFTSSA approach demonstrating superior performance.
Floating photovoltaic (FPV)-powered PEM electrolysis can be a promising solution for green hydrog... more Floating photovoltaic (FPV)-powered PEM electrolysis can be a promising solution for green hydrogen production, as it eliminates land use concerns typically associated with PV installations. Electrolysis produces hydrogen and oxygen as by-products without emitting harmful gases. However, the process requires a substantial amount of clean water, which can be sourced from seawater using desalination techniques. This study demonstrates the viability of an off-grid green hydrogen production system powered by FPV technology and seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO), designed to support green mobility in Duqm, Oman. A 20 MWp FPV system was installed on the Arabian Sea, approximately 600 km south of Muscat. The integrated system efficiently combines renewable energy, desalination, and electrolysis to produce 1755 kg of hydrogen per day using local solar energy and seawater resources. The system achieved zero operational CO₂ emissions, contributing to the decarbonisation of the transportation sector through the use of hydrogen-powered vehicles. The Levelised Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) was calculated at $9.50/kg, the Levelised Cost of Water (LCW) at $1.80/m³, and the Levelised Cost of Electricity (LCOE) at a competitive $0.05/kWh. Hydrogen-powered sedans and high-capacity fuel cell buses were successfully operated using the produced hydrogen, demonstrating the potential for widespread refuelling of a significant number of vehicles.
Agrivoltaics, the concurrent use of land to produce energy and grow crops, represents a form of s... more Agrivoltaics, the concurrent use of land to produce energy and grow crops, represents a form of sustainable land management. The paper critically reviews the integration of solar energy with land used for agriculture, grazing, aquatic environment, and wildlife conservation. These integrations offer a dual advantage, lowering heat stress to ensure their survival and boosting agricultural produce and energy generation. The research specifically reviews to evaluate the benefits of agrivoltaics, such as increased land efficiency, improved crop yields, and enhanced livestock welfare, while addressing associated challenges like ecological impacts and technical constraints. The purpose of the research is to give an overview of integrated systems with agrivoltaics, including their benefits, challenges, and potential applications. This research focuses on developing sustainable, resilient, and multifunctional land-use systems by defining and optimising synergies between solar energy and various agricultural practices.
Technical, financial, and emissions analyses of solar water heating systems for supplying sustainable energy for hotels in Ghana
Solar Compass
Ghana has the potential to deploy solar energy technologies, with its solar irradiation varying b... more Ghana has the potential to deploy solar energy technologies, with its solar irradiation varying between 4 and 6.5 kWh/m2/day. However, the country's dependence on fossil fuels for generating electricity and heat remains prevalent. This study aims to assess the technical and financial feasibility of installing solar water heating (SWH) systems in hotels within Ghana. RETScreen software is used to conduct the technical, financial, and emission analyses of the SWH system for five cities in Ghana, including Accra, Cape Coast, Kumasi, Tamale, and Wa. The findings show that SWH systems are feasible for Ghanaian hotels, with solar fractions ranging from 61.2% in Kumasi to 78.5% in Wa. Also, installing the SWH system yields a positive net present value for all the cities. The implication is that installing SWH systems in hotels operating in Ghana is financially viable and attractive for investment. In addition, payback periods infer that the SWH systems can generate a return on investment in a reasonable time frame, especially considering the equity payback period. Furthermore, about 58.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions could be avoided annually by installing the SWH system in the selected cities. This study's findings suggest that hotels can achieve long-term financial savings on electricity costs by utilising solar energy to heat water. This, in turn, reduces their reliance on fossil fuel consumption while actively pursuing their sustainability objectives. The study findings are crucial in assisting hotel owners in making informed decisions on SWH systems.
The increase in global energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions over the last century has ... more The increase in global energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions over the last century has been related to increased pollution and irreversible damage to important resources. To reduce the global dependence on natural resources and pollution, many scientific efforts have been made to reduce the energy production costs from renewable sources, including efforts to exploit the inherent properties of semiconductors to generate electricity using sunlight. Solar batteries based on the first semiconductor, with efficiencies of >10 %, were produced between 1950 and 1960. Currently, 80-90 % of photovoltaic components worldwide are made from silicon sheets. The use of semiconductors is revolutionizing the optical and electronics industries. Understanding the properties of semiconductors is important for understanding the activity of solar cells and improving their performance and conversion efficiencies. To generate electricity, solar cells must produce electricity and tension. Electricity is produced by motion loads, and tension requires a difference between electronic energy levels. Metal and insulation are free loads, and there is a prohibition between electronic energy levels. However, semiconductors have several advantages over metals. For a highly effective conversion, an effective load must occur, which depends on factors such as the diffusion length of the electrons and holes. The creation and recombination of electrons and their vulnerabilities are of utmost importance in solar cells. This article offers a detailed review of advanced solar sun cell technologies, new materials, loss mechanisms, and efficiency-improvement techniques. Research includes silicon materials (Si) and III-V, punishment lines of lead, durable embryos, organic photovoltaics, and solar cells that are aware of colors. In this context, promising architectural progress with graphene and super materials has been emphasized in the literature. This study also included different types of losses, including interior and external losses, in the single solar cells. Techniques to improve efficiency, such as light management and spectrum use, have been evaluated. Although the effect of solar cells based on Si is delayed by approximately 25 %, the effectiveness of multi-transition solar cells based on III-V semiconductor compounds is improved. However, mixed III-V semiconductors are subject to high material costs. In addition, indium gallium and cadmium telluride solar battery technologies can compete with crystalline solar cells owing to recent progress in cell performance. However, environmental concerns and open tensions regarding the remaining Cd are prevalent. In contrast, perovskite solar cells are highly efficient for both single and multiple arrays. The industrialization of perovskite solar cells requires consideration of device degradation, hysteresis, and film quality.
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Papers by Solar Compass Journal