Papers by Massimo Fongaro
Table of Divine Metamorphoses
Greek gods from the East n. 9, January 2026
Athena and Aphrodite appear as two antithetical deities: one the goddess of war, the other the go... more Athena and Aphrodite appear as two antithetical deities: one the goddess of war, the other the goddess of love. Yet, the modern separation between love and war did not exist in Ancient Mesopotamia. Both Greek goddesses derive from the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, who embodied love, beauty, and warfare within a single figure. This is a journey of cultural metamorphosis across the Mediterranean.
Greek gods from the East n. 8, July 2025
Hermes was the most beautiful and unpredictable god of Olympus: god shepherd, messenger, orator; ... more Hermes was the most beautiful and unpredictable god of Olympus: god shepherd, messenger, orator; with his winged sandals he ran quickly between heaven and earth. But are we sure that Hermes was a Greek god? What if he was the result of a syncretism of Eastern divinities?
This essay describes the metamorphoses of Hermes following a historical-comparative method.
Flash article n. 11, updated August 2024
What is the meaning of the word "father"? Maybe the Indoeuropeans originally meant something diff... more What is the meaning of the word "father"? Maybe the Indoeuropeans originally meant something different, like a lightning or a dagger.
The etymology proposed here is based on real historical and linguistic data.
Flash article n. 20, July 2024
What did the word "mother" mean for the Indoeuropeans? The etymology proposed here is based on re... more What did the word "mother" mean for the Indoeuropeans? The etymology proposed here is based on real historical and linguistic data.
Greek gods from the East n. 7, June 2024
Dionysus is the god of wine, vegetation, religious ecstasy and theater. He is the result of an ex... more Dionysus is the god of wine, vegetation, religious ecstasy and theater. He is the result of an extraordinary process of cultural assimilation that occurred between Mycenae and Crete in the Bronze Age. This investigation reconstructs his formation according to a historical and linguistic perspective.
Greek gods from the East n. 6, April 2024
Demeter's greatest gifts to humanity were agriculture and the Mysteries. What is her origin? And ... more Demeter's greatest gifts to humanity were agriculture and the Mysteries. What is her origin? And that of her daughter Persephone? Many clues lead us to Mycenae and Crete, where ancient Babylonian beliefs were reworked. The two goddesses are the result of an extraordinary process of cultural assimilation, reconstructed from both a religious and linguistic point of view.
Flash article n. 19, updated February 2024
In 1991 an ancient sword was found at the archaeological site of Hattuša, the capital of the Hitt... more In 1991 an ancient sword was found at the archaeological site of Hattuša, the capital of the Hittites of the Bronze Age (2nd millennium BC). The Akkadian inscription engraved on the blade can be translated as follows: "When Duthaliya the Great King defeated the country of Assuwa, he dedicated these swords to the storm god, his lord". Assuwa was a confederation of western Anatolian states defeated by the Hittite king Tudhaliya I/II around 1400 BC. But the weapon found was not Hittite; the sword is a Mycenaean design used in Greece at that time. We do not know if that weapon belonged to a simple mercenary, or if in the Assawa revolt were also involved the Greek-Mycenaeans or a part of them. However we know that the Hittites knew the land of Ahhiyawa, its king, and the islands that belonged to him. Specialists today agree that he referred to mainland Greece and the Mycenaeans, or to the city of Mycenae or Thebes (Cline 2014).
Greek gods from the East n. 5, updated March 2024
Apollo and Artemis were gods adored by the Greeks. Their origin is lost in the abyss of time, but... more Apollo and Artemis were gods adored by the Greeks. Their origin is lost in the abyss of time, but many clues lead us to Mycenae and Crete, where ancient Mesopotamian beliefs have been reworked. The two divine twins are the result of an extraordinary process of cultural assimilation, reconstructed from both a religious and linguistic standpoint. So, would Apollo and Artemis not be Greek deities? Perhaps not, but what the Greeks have added is the incomparable beauty of their gods.
I am aware that the thesis presented here contradicts common knowledge and understanding of Greek civilization. For this reason, I will provide an alternative historical scenario: this is the story of a semantic and linguistic evolution based on historical evidence.
Greek gods from the East n. 4, July 2023
Sun and moon, god Helios and goddess Selene, brother and sister in heaven and in myth. The Greeks... more Sun and moon, god Helios and goddess Selene, brother and sister in heaven and in myth. The Greeks revered sun and moon as the stars that regulate the rhythm of life in this world. But what does link them with the Babylonian gods? I don't believe in the Indo-European hypothesis. I propose an alternative theory about the origin of the Greek pantheon supported by real linguistic and historical data. Fourth essay on Helios and Selene.
Greek gods from the East n. 3, June 2023
Hera was the queen of all Greek gods. But was she a greek? Or did Zeus marry a Middle east goddes... more Hera was the queen of all Greek gods. But was she a greek? Or did Zeus marry a Middle east goddess? I don't believe in the Indo-European hypothesis. I propose an alternative theory about the origin of the Greek pantheon supported by real linguistic and historical data. Third essay on Hera.
Greek gods from the East n. 2, June 2023
Where was the war god Ares born? And the god Hades? And what links them with the Babylonian under... more Where was the war god Ares born? And the god Hades? And what links them with the Babylonian underworld?
I don't believe in the Indo-European hypothesis. I propose an alternative theory about the origin of the Greek pantheon supported by real linguistic and historical data. Second essay on Ares and Hades.
Greek gods from the East n. 1, May 2023, updated August 2025
Were the ancient greek gods really greek? Or were they Babylonian deities reworked with great gen... more Were the ancient greek gods really greek? Or were they Babylonian deities reworked with great genius and imagination?
I don't believe in the Indo-European hypothesis. I propose an alternative theory about the origin of the Greek pantheon supported by real linguistic and historical data.
First essay on Zeus, Poseidon and Hephaestus.
Flash article n. 18, April 2023
Flash article n. 17, October 2022
Jupiter! Upon the tilled grounds and pastures of the Athenians" (Meditations V, 7). Zeus was the ... more Jupiter! Upon the tilled grounds and pastures of the Athenians" (Meditations V, 7). Zeus was the supreme deity of Olympus, king of gods and men, he also was the god of the sky and of atmospheric phenomena such as storms and rain. His Homeric epithets were "cloud gatherer", "dark clouded", "rain dispenser", "god of lightning". Lightning was Zeus's weapon, which he alone was able to command; it was irresistible, even the gods trembled before it; with it he defeated all enemies and put the universe of the Greeks in order. The question is: what is the etymology of the name "Zeus"? Specialists said that Zeus Ζεύς, god of the sky and storm, originated from the root *Di̯ ēus, the name of the Proto-Indo-European god of the daytime sky, also called *Dyeus patēr (Sky Father).
Flash article n. 15, September 2022
Flash article n. 14, August 2022
The augment is a prefix used in certain Indo-European languages to mark the time in past tenses. ... more The augment is a prefix used in certain Indo-European languages to mark the time in past tenses. It is surprising to find this grammatical feature in languages very distant from each other, such as Greek, Indo-Iranian languages, Phrygian and Armenian. The matter is understanding how the augmentum spread from East to West and what relationship there is with the ancient Semitic languages of the Middle East, because we also find the prefix to form the past tense in Eblaite, Akkadian and Aramaic.
Flash article n. 13, July 2022
Flash article n. 12, July 2022
The ancients report that Anaxagoras, pupil of Anaximenes, was the first who set Mind above Matter... more The ancients report that Anaxagoras, pupil of Anaximenes, was the first who set Mind above Matter, for at the beginning of his treatise, he says: "All things were together; then came Mind and set them in order" (DK 59 A 1). That Mind is the Nous: in ancient Greek νοῦς, ionic νόος nóos; in the thought of Anaxagoras it constitutes the cosmic principle that generates things starting from the initial chaos where everything is mixed and indistinct: "And Nous had power over the whole revolution, so that it began to revolve in the beginning. And
Flash article n. 10, May 2022
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Papers by Massimo Fongaro
This essay describes the metamorphoses of Hermes following a historical-comparative method.
The etymology proposed here is based on real historical and linguistic data.
I am aware that the thesis presented here contradicts common knowledge and understanding of Greek civilization. For this reason, I will provide an alternative historical scenario: this is the story of a semantic and linguistic evolution based on historical evidence.
I don't believe in the Indo-European hypothesis. I propose an alternative theory about the origin of the Greek pantheon supported by real linguistic and historical data. Second essay on Ares and Hades.
I don't believe in the Indo-European hypothesis. I propose an alternative theory about the origin of the Greek pantheon supported by real linguistic and historical data.
First essay on Zeus, Poseidon and Hephaestus.