CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Journal of Integrative Neuroscience, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2008) 75–116 °c Imperial College Press Commentary CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER RONALD J. MACGREGOR Department of Aerospace Engineering Sciences University of Colorado, Boulder 38 Rock Ridge Dr NE, Albuquerque NM 87122-2007, USA [email protected] RAM LAKHAN PANDEY VIMAL Vision Research Institute, 428 Great Road, Suite 11 Acton, MA 01720, USA Received 15 December 2007 Accepted 12 February 2008 This commentary article extends Vimal’s [J Integr Neurosci 7:49–73, 2008] concept of pro- toexperience by outlining a two-factor approach to the localization of consciousness within the physical matter of the brain consistent with contemporary theoretical physics, molec- ular and system biology, and neuroscience. Specific hypotheses based on this approach predict on clearly stated grounds the occurrence or non-occurrence, and degrees of inten- sity of consciousness within the human brain and possibly in related species based on the combination of protoconsciousness with energetic activating agents. In this it comprises a mechanics of consciousness. Keywords: Consciousness; protoexperience; brain; Chaos model; glutamate; physics; strings; quantum theory. 1. Introduction The central shortfall in the science of consciousness is that despite the apparent association of consciousness with the brain, there is no recognized sense in the rela- tionship of its essential existentiality with physical matter. A major blind is that the fundamental substance of the subject falls into the divisions between our major sciences, and therefore, not inside any of them. Because of this, the many good ideas and observations put forth in the last twenty years regarding consciousness in the brain lack an integrated ground structure within which they might be placed and clearly seen in individual and relative breadth, strength, validity, and interpretive and predictive power. This paper describes an approach to the substantive identi- fication of existential operative consciousness in the structures of matter and their processes as these are currently seen in theoretical physics, molecular and systemic 75 April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 76 MacGregor & Vimal biology, and the neurosciences so as to push forward towards such an integrated ground structure. 1.1. Consciousness in nature and science It seems clear that consciousness is strongly associated with the brain. This is estab- lished by many experimental and clinical observations in humans and by its ultimate dependence on brain physiology (glucose and oxygen supply to brain neurons), and (presumably in this) by its apparent disappearance in death. The deeper questions of the subject have to do with how well our sciences describe and account for the consciousness we know and take to be part of the nature of the brain. Existentiality and autonomy are essential qualities of consciousness which require clarification at some point within necessarily interrelated descriptions in the sciences of physics, biology, neuroscience, and psychology. For our purposes, each of these sciences includes several levels of material structures, each associated with dynamic forces and processes. • Physics: strings, quantum particles, atoms-molecules-chemistry, mesoscopic mat- ter, macroscopic matter, • Biology: organic molecules, cells, systems, organisms, (populations, ecosystems), • Neuroscience: physiology, metabolism, neural circuits, psychology. In this paper, we discuss all of these for plausible candidates for substrates of consciousness. The question requires either extending or melding across these sci- ences as we have come to define them. This work seeks; (1) a substantive identity between existential operative consciousness and some specific element(s) of matter consonant with all the physics and biology, including explicit grounding of exis- tentiality and interpretations of autonomy, but recognizes at the outset additional possibilities; (2) a substantive identity which does not include an explicit grounding of existentiality and is incomplete; (3) consciousness may be apparently compatible with all the sciences but ultimately obscure, not revealing to us any definite link- ing to particular matter or physical processes; (4) consciousness may reside in the physical-biological nature of the brain but is not adequately described by theoret- ical physics or biology as they are currently structured; (5) consciousness may be partially outside the physical nature of the brain in a dimension or other ways we do not yet understand. Labeled in this article as Candidate A (see Section 7). Science must scrutinize fine detail in sharp focus and the great complexity of the brain particularly demands this and neuroscience largely satisfies it. Yet, there is also need for broad integrations, and consciousness study especially needs broad multidisciplinary integration. This paper pursues that broad multidisciplinary inte- gration in terms of the rudimentary fundamentals and foundations of the physical, biological, and neurosciences. The paper lays out basic knowledge of these individ- ual bodies of knowledge all together in highly succinct form so as to clearly focus on their integration in the emergence, nature, and deep structure of consciousness. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 77 In parallel, with this, we focus on what we see as the most promising approach to this problem area, namely the concept of protoconsciousness in [80]. 1.2. A two-factor approach to consciousness theory In addition to recognizing existentiality, this work utilizes the concept of an under- lying potential for consciousness, a protoconsciousness, which might be possibly attributed to some subset(s) of matter and which co-evolves and co-develops into a true consciousness. This concept is introduced by Vimal [80] with the term “proto- experience” to emphasize its relation to subjective existentiality. The present paper is based on general concepts of protoexperience and its subsequent evolution and development into conscious experience introduced by Vimal [80]. However, we use the term protoconsciousness to better indicate the full range of operational as well as experiential consciousness which is intended but not definitely indicated by the proto experience label. Moreover, we do not fix protoconsciousness in all or any matter initially, but rather identify and pursue a broad systematic search for possible sites of both the emergence of protoconsciousness itself and its subsequent development and activation into consciousness. We consider a possible grounding of existential- ity (protoconsciousness) in curled up strings which are subsequently expanded in selected elements. Characterization of primordial superimposed subject experience [80] is not adopted in this commentary. Both of us feel that the essential problem of consciousness needs to be focused on from slightly outside the margins of science-as-it-is before it can be entirely subjected to it. This is because consciousness is intrinsically outside the realm of things to which science has applied its highly successful but restrictive methods of approach (e.g., subjectivity). That is, consciousness, in our view, is outside the explicit assumptions of the traditional scientific method until we can clarify its nature and place so as to indicate the correct way to relax those restrictions. This is to satisfactorily focus a slightly expanded scientific view upon it. This is the reason the topic has not yielded to science despite its intense interest to mankind over all these centuries. We adopt a two-factor approach to the origin and development of conscious- ness consisting of (I) an original emergence of “protoconscious” capacity in cer- tain structural elements of matter, and (II) subsequent enhancement(s) of this by variously encountered “activating agents” such as locally high energy densities or certain geometric configurations. Section 2 discusses basic questions regarding this pursuit. The central core of the paper (Secs. 3–6) is a survey and discussion of the wide range of structures of physical and biological matter in pursuit of plau- sible sites for the emergence of protoconsciousness and plausible activating agents for it enhancement. Sixteen such candidates are identified. A plausible multilevel two-factored protoconscious glutamate theory is then presented as a substantive ground structure of existential-operative consciousness to illustrate the power of this approach. This theory associates consciousness in the glutamatergic pathways April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 78 MacGregor & Vimal of the human brain (as suggested by Maggerstretti and Pellerin [47]; see also [60,61]) by virtue of protoconscious in fundamental particles of either the amino acid glu- tamate transmitter or its protein receptor molecule. This glutamate theory pro- vides predictions of the localization of conscious properties in the human brain and its selected occurrence in the vertebrate tree. Generalizations to other systems are indicated. The theory brings consciousness, brain activity, and brain organization into close relationship with molecular biology and suggests an importance of molecular config- urational geometry (Sec. 4). The work also introduces the idea of a possible substan- tive grounding of protoconsciousness in brain elements whose fundamental particles have expanded string dimensions of existentiality (Sec. 3.1). This might be achieved by the geometric configurations of certain organic molecules (Sec. 8). The two-factor protoconsciousness model then produces a viable expanded inter- pretation of a promising model of at least one basis of consciousness. This is a general approach to the problem area, and possible path to the fundamental undergirdings of existentiality in terms of contemporary physics. In this, it comprises an explicit, experimentally testable mechanics of consciousness which is now totally absent in the field. At the least the approach suggests new paths to old dilemmas and ways to think about the five modes of consciousness ([a]–[e]) indicated in the last para- graph of Sec. 1.1; at best, it suggests a grand merging of the physical, biological, psychological, and ultimately, spiritual dimensions of human experience, and in this, also seeds the grand vision of science to unite the physical, life, and psychological sciences. No theory without these features can be a “theory of everything”. 1.3. Relevant neuroscience literature on consciousness Neuroscience has recently tried to sharpen our understanding of the relationship between consciousness and brain. The general question of whether consciousness is between spirit or mind and matter has been a focus of philosophical and reli- gious discourse since prehistoric times, and of science also for millenia [2,3,6,7,9–15, 17–23,25,30,33,34,36–38,41–52,54–56,58–61,63–73,75–77,80,81,84,86]. All these and many other publications provide a broad beach-head of progress in the field. The increasingly wide-spread use of fMRI technology is pushing the field ahead rapidly. Of these citations, [2,3,9–12,17–19,33,41,45–49,51,56,59–61,66,6,76,80] are par- ticularly relevant to our multidisciplinary interests and predictions. Chalmers [12] gives a useful categorization of hypotheses of the brain-consciousness relationship (summarized in [80]). Most particularly, this paper takes up and develops the pro- toexperience approach introduced in [80]. Possible association with particular neu- rotransmitters is increasingly recognized [3,6,17,18,47–49,60,61,66,67,76,86,87]. The most viable general model for brain dynamics is the molecular neural chaos model, which sees that brain has an essentially unpredictable system which can be put into widely differing realms of behavior by very small differences of stim- ulation or state [7,19,25,38,41]. This model predicts highly individual behavioral April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 79 tendencies and selections across individual persons, that is, a unique individual- ity and personality for every person, given the highly idiosyncratic plastic growth of their governing brain. The descriptive validity of this model is strengthened by the illustration that small state deviations in matter generally, and brain matter particularly, should be expected to amplify very quickly by multiple collisions of particles so as to influence normal levels of neural activity [41,46]. Yet, this model in itself does not take us near enough to the fundamental questions of the area, without further considerations of the nature and properties of consciousness. Many neuroscientists, perhaps most, are willing to see consciousness as a “quality” of the nervous system [37]. Refer to Candidate B. The essential features of consciousness — beyond the fundamental array of its contents and their comings, goings, and qualities — are its unique existential nature and its apparent autonomy (free will). These two seem to combine in each of us as our unique personal self which we use, among other things, to direct our lives and immediate behavior. Autonomy has proved difficult to relate to physics [45]. Existentiality, in itself, has not played a strong role in the neuroscientific theory of consciousness-brain relations outside of its universal tacit recognition and its role in fMRI experimentation [17,47,51,60,61]. The attempt to relate existentiality to physics, however, immediately suggests broader dimensions for the subject as well as opening specific new directions beyond those suggested by its other attributes including autonomy. A physically-grounded theory of consciousness should predict occurrences in selected matter in the human brain and its occurrence or non-occurrence in other living organisms and inorganic matter, and the property of variable intensity. Our “two-factor” theory produces these predictions by virtue of the locations of its pro- toconscious matter and activating agents. 1.4. Recent literature by structural levels It seems that most of quantum mechanics is in place and its “standard model” almost complete (Secs. 3.2–3/[16,27,40,53,55,57]), and a number of quantum-based ideas and models for the brain and consciousness have appeared [33,34,45,46,56,63]. The most activity in physics for our present interests over the past fifteen years and more has been in string theory where many speculations regarding the existence, nature, and possible manifestations of extra dimensions in the ultimate fabric of the universe have been discussed (Sec. 3.1/[26,28,29,32,39,62]). Greene’s introductions [28,29] and Gates’ recent update [26] are good starting points for non-physicists. Beyond these, Penrose [55] considers consciousness, and Randall [62] hidden dimensions, in string theory. Atomic structure and inorganic chemistry form a very well known, solid, classic science (Sec. 3.4/[24,78]). The molecular revolution in the last half-century of biology has produced a highly detailed picture of the organic molecular and cellular structures and func- tions of living organisms. In the past twenty years, we have seen a tremendous April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 80 MacGregor & Vimal increase in understanding and appreciation of the origin, evolution, and rich diver- sity and complexity of unicellular life. This has produced a grand overhauling of the phylogenetic tree of living organisms as based on genetic DNA which makes a fuller recognition of this microscopic world and better identifies phylogenetic relationships throughout the chart. All of this information is vital to our inter- est (Secs. 4–4.3/[5,31,33,42,79,82,83,85]). Tudge’s recent survey [79] is indispens- able and Woese’s [82,83] is seminal. [5,31, and 85] are classic descriptions of older morphology-based zoological taxonomy. Organic chemical reactions, molecular gating mechanisms, and volume fluxes associated with cellular and systemic metabolic and regulatory processes are extremely rich, energy-intense, and delicately balanced physiological activity which Cannon has christened the “wisdom of the body” and which are vital to our interests (Secs. 5–5.2/[8]). This class can be extended to include the cellular, local, regional, and global ionic volume currents of neural circuits and their corresponding electri- cal fields (Sec. 5.3/[1,36,56,52,59–61,75]). Poznanski has advocated volume currents and especially neuropile as sites of consciousness [59]. Pessa and Viiello [56] describe a quantum mechanical field theory of brain/mind states. The neural circuitry [2,3,20,48–51,60,64–68,73,76,81,84,86,87] and associated neuroglial metabolism [19,47,60,61] of the vertebrate nervous system are likely can- didate structural levels for the active manifestations of consciousness (Sec. 6). Phy- logenetic developments here, especially across vertebrates here are extremely useful [64,79]. Intelligent speculation of general localization of consciousness seems within reach by the virtue of the excellent accumulation of electrophysiology through the last fifty years and grows more so every day with the power of fMRI experimentation [47,51,60,61]. A singularly important recent discovery is a strong association of con- sciousness with the glutamate transmitter system and particularly its metabolically supporting astroglial networks [47,60,61]. Sections 3–6 survey, according to this two-factor template, shows the orga- nization of matter through all these levels in search of plausible candidate sites for protoconsciousness and activators, culminating in its primary focus on the human brain. Sixteen initial suggestive candidates are noted and discussed. Since brain matter is a multiplexed hierarchical structure of many nested lev- els, from strings through DNA and other organic molecules and multiple coor- dinated physiological systems, any normal neural-level operation is potentially involved with and influenced by matter particles of all levels. This implies that possible enhancements of consciousness at any structural level will be intrinsic to and potentially influential in normal-level neural operations. It also implies that possible enhancements of consciousness in phylogenetic ancestors to humans may recur in humans and suggests the occurrence of a sequence and per- haps parallel branches of varying levels or shades of consciousness both in the human brain and in at least some organisms which are phylogenetically close to humans. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 81 2. Basic Concepts 2.1. Functions of human consciousness Consciousness itself consists of a primal sense of open existential awareness distin- guishable from its contents. Its two central operational activities are the focused guidance of behavior in the here and now and focused guidance of inner reflec- tive thinking, planning, and learning. In both these activities, consciousness acts by directing attention regarding sensory and motor integrations or more internal rep- resentations and memory banks. Consciousness is passively aware of much current sensory input. Consciousness is triggered by threats in one’s immediate or general circumstances signaled to it by current sensory perceptions or deeper unconscious brain integrations. Consciousness also seems to make, or perhaps more accurately, recognize and pass final confirming agreement to, decisions, and thereby embody and then effect a will or volition on which we rely as our personal sovereign “free will ”. Consciousness attention is necessary for much learning. Consciousness is intimately associated with our perhaps most singularly human characteristic, imagination, nudging it along and accepting or recycling its creations, even though much of imagination itself is carried on unconsciously among labyrinthine beds of memory and inner representations. Dreams and hallucinations also reflect marginal regions of similar conscious involvements. Consciousness routinely provides overall guidance and direction of behavior and inner life engaging the entire multiplexed hierarchy of the brain and one’s circumstances. This overall regulation can be taken as a “self”, fundamentally operational in nature [7]. In this article, the term “consciousness” or “awareness” includes passive or active subjective experience, inner reflections and thought, feelings, emotions, and other experiences indicated by the above listing. The term “protoconsciousness” refers to a quiescent precursor of consciousness which can be characterized as a carrier of consciousness [80]. 2.2. Essential nature of human consciousness The widely adapted characterization of consciousness as “a quality of the nervous system” is much too weak for its central existential and governing role. This work characterizes consciousness as a “dimension” which seems to more accurately char- acterize its unique status in human existence, in the brain, and, by this, in nature. We recognize consciousness as a distinct primal dimension even in the plausible sub- stantive identification with matter which is pursued here. Its existential nature is taken here to distinguish it from both physical matter and matter’s physical energy and forces, whether there is an ultimate substantive identification of consciousness with some specific segment of this physical matter and energy or not. At root consciousness is a primal dimension of existentiality within humans (at least), and thereby within the universe. Its apparent attributes can be considered, April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 82 MacGregor & Vimal identified (at least partially), described in words, and used effectively as working definitions. However, its ultimate nature can be apprehended only directly, in its own terms, which is existentially. 2.3. General relation of consciousness to matter Consciousness does indeed seem to associate intimately with matter. Indeed, the only consciousness of which we can be certain at this stage is that of our own human experience and this seems to be associated especially with the human brain. This is our strongest clue and this work follows it to develop specific hypotheses regarding the overall localization of consciousness in the human brain and in its grounding in the molecules and deep structure of its matter. This suggests some outreaches, however, and two are explored carefully. The first is that human consciousness, is a continuation, and perhaps, flowering of con- sciousness in our evolutionary ancestors, such as a shared common ancestor with the great apes and some unknown preceding reach back in time through corresponding unknown numbers and types of earlier living organisms. This is discussed further in the next section, and emerges throughout the subsequent portions of the work. The second path arises from the observation that the matter and operations of the brain are built up with complex dynamic physical organizations at several anatomical levels, and more than one level, exhibit properties and obscurities which might plausibly relate to consciousness. This implies that certain features of the entire ranges of structured matter from the most minute ultimate origins through the full spectra of both inorganic (non-living), and organic (living) matter may be fundamental to human consciousness, and all this will thus be therefore scrutinized from the standpoints of theoretical physics and the collective views of contemporary DNA-based phylogeny. A central property of locating consciousness in specific segments of matter is that it provides grounds for predicting the occurence or non-occurence and levels of consciousness in the human brain and related ancestral species. 2.4. The origin of consciousness The conceptual and philosophical problem with the origin of consciousness is similar to that of both the origin of matter (and the universe) and the origin of life. In the cases of matter and life, some vital new structuro-organizational entity emerges, then grows and develops into a rich universe of forms, each domain answering to its own operational rules. Life emerges in matter, as far as we know, only once and on earth, follows physical laws, but accommodates these to its own uses as rules rooted in its own organic molecular structures, and eventually in the larger physiological systems they produce. Similarly, we know consciousness only within our own individual brains, and the psyche which it regulates follows the physiological laws of life and the physical laws of its matter, but also accommodates these to its own individual-centered needs and interests. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 83 It seems life first emerged just once as a double stranded DNA-like molecule in a hot but cooling syncytium, and very soon diversified and developed accord- ing to mutations occurring in its reproductive and productive processes [79,82,83]. High temperature conditions somewhat similar to these are found today in a few selected deep seafloor regions close to vented heat of the earth’s molten core. Many primitive unicellular organisms are found here and thought to be suggestive and perhaps derivative of the earliest life on earth. The first original living molecules of the syncytium are thought to have gained their abilities to reproduce and to capture nutrients by the chance attainment of a physical structure which did this reliably according to the physical laws which govern the matter of which they are composed. A long period of bombardment of earth by meteors maintained high tem- peratures for a long time, thereby increasing the likelihood of the occurrence of such unlikely events, which then seem to have happened once, but perhaps, not more than once. In its origin and development, life is first and primarily molecular, and then cellular, and is definitively characterized by its ability to reproduce itself and to channel ambient matter and energy to produce structures and processes to serve its own needs. Life evolved over mutating generations by usefully accreting these productions to sustain and enhance its own structure and productive processes. Life is a realm of the organization of matter unique in itself. In the sense that its primary governing laws and purposes are its own, its is similar to three other nested regions of physical matter which obey their own systems of laws: microscopic strings and quantum particles, the large mesoscopic ambient realm which obeys classical newtonian laws (and in which we live), and the vast cosmic macroscopic universe which obeys relativity laws. Inorganic (non-living, “inert”) matter collects into marvelous orderly and often beautiful structures and sometimes long-standing dynamic patterns, all in accordance with a few basically simple governing physical laws. The field of chemistry [24,78] consists of the combining, break-down, and recom- bining of atoms and molecules as elements, minerals, compounds, and larger hydro- carbon and carbohydrate molecules. All such structures are established by forces which pull and hold them together. These structural bonds are energy in the form of tension. Chemistry then involves the storage, release, and exchange of energy in the combining and recombining of inert matter. All the processes of chemistry are well understood in microscopic detail and described precisely by the known laws of physics. Living organisms are made of organic molecules which are carbohydrates distin- guished from inorganic hydrocarbons by their particular incorporation and use of the carbon atom [78,42,79]. One of these particularly, the DNA molecule, evolved the ability to reproduce itself, and to oversee not only the reproduction of its own form, but also the production, in gradual evolution, of numerous other use- ful organic molecular structures which become the organism’s bodies and per- form the operations of life. These structures, from the very first, attained abilities April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 84 MacGregor & Vimal to act in their own interests of survival and reproduction in response to ambi- ent conditions. Thus, some degree of individual organismic autonomy of a sort seems identifiable at the operative molecular DNA-levels of the earliest life forms. Yet, all of this is generally taken to work in accordance with governing laws of physics at the particle, atomic, and molecular levels, this last strongly dependent on the particular shapes of the participating carbohydrate molecules, especially pro- teins and DNA. In all of this, individual autonomy of molecular organisms, and thereby, eventual molecular autonomy in large multicellular organisms, is obscure and seems a moot point. Individual autonomy might likely seem to further dis- tinguish the realm of life at some point from inorganic realms of matter, but this may relate more especially to consciousness and this also is presently a moot point. Consciousness, now, might be taken to have originated and then developed in life, something like life originated and then developed in matter, and there is much in common observation that might seem compatible with this. The overall regu- lation of the brain, and through it of the larger organism, is a central, perhaps ultimate, function of consciousness, and overall regulation is also a central operative characteristic of the original DNA molecules of life. So it seems plausible to seek origins of consciousness at the organic molecular level in the original DNA molecules, in cells, or in other organic molecules. It also seems necessary to seek likely signifi- cant enhancement and even perhaps first origin among the more advanced cellular and physiological systems. The critical sites for the original emergence of the potential for consciousness and for its development would seem to be around the origin of matter, the origin of large organic carbohydrate molecules (especially DNA) of living creatures close to the origin of life itself, in energy-dense physiological processes; and especially those eventually leading to and culminating in the critical expansive organizational developments of matter vital in the operations of the human brain. The particles directly associated with protoconscious would be a kind of “hyper- particle” which would refer to all the levels of structure in which that particle was encased. The possible association of conscious existentiality with the dimensions of strings (and thereby some fundamental quantum particles) is suggested and then explored at all structural levels of matter. 2.5. Existentiality, autonomy, and the substantive identification of consciousness with matter The association of consciousness with the human brain is a well-established fact. However, the nature and ultimate localization of this association has remained elu- sive and highly controversial. The existential nature and apparent ultimate auton- omy of conscious will in guiding individual behavior are at the heart of this obscurity. It is also compounded by the extreme complexity of the brain’s multiplexed struc- tures and functional operations. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 85 This work pursues a substantive identity of consciousness with some segments of the physical brain. Many others see a looser association. It also pursues the possibility of a complete description of the conscious physical brain within theoretical physics as it now exists or can be easily interpreted or extended. Again, others feel that consciousness is ultimately, in at least some small yet highly significant places, outside the laws of physics. Fundamental characteristics of contemporary string theory and quantum mechanics can be adapted to the questions of autonomy and the unique existen- tial dimension of consciousness. This work suggests and shows how the conscious existentiality in the human brain might be grounded as protoconsciousness in one (or more) of the eleven dimensions within a subset(s) of the fundamental individual strings at the core of all matter. Each particle of the universe exists as a manifes- tation of the vibrational quality of one string. Space and time emerge early, prior to particles or the big-bang, as four of the eleven dimensions of strings. The other seven dimensions have a more difficult time emerging and have not yet been identi- fied and may be fallow. They are particularly associated with particular geometrical shapes called Calabi-Yau shapes for the mathematicians who described these shapes [28,29]. The grounding of existential consciousness in strings as a unique dimension of reality (flowering, in the human brain) is extremely attractive as the cleanest and clearest visible grounding of the unique dimension of existentiality in physics. This hypothesis suggests a grand merging of the physical, biological, psychological, and ultimately, spiritual dimensions of human experience, and in this also seeds the grand vision of science to unite the physical, life, and psychological sciences. It also seeds a grand comprehensive integrative view of human nature and the human potential inclusive of its highest reaches and lowest proclivities. If these concepts seem to stretch one’s credulity, it is good to remember how clearly we know the existentiality of consciousness and how strongly we suspect its intimate grounding in the brain. These suggest that we may ultimately need to amend or reinterpret the canon which science has so long held that all is ulti- mately physical. At the very least, the path forces plausible working hypotheses thus prodding forward direction regarding the grounding of consciousness in the brain. The autonomy associated with a consciousness as a fundamental existential dimension of string structure in key particles of critical brain segments substantively identified with the decision-making and guidance of willful voluntary behavior would be clearly a true conscious autonomy. This requires no further new physics to sub- stantiate this autonomy. So would be the autonomy of the dual-aspect consciousness with these particles defined in [80]. Many neuroscientists believe that consciousness is a mere ineffectual epiphe- nomenon, and free will is an illusion [37]. Others, however, see unpredictabilities of quantum mechanics and the molecular chaos model as grounds for free will [25,33,38,41,45,46]. A further possibility in this is that autonomous action could be effected by minute adjustments of critical quantum level state variables within April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 86 MacGregor & Vimal the Heisenberg uncertainty range in critical brain segments [46]. Any of these could serve as a source of true autonomy even in the cases of obscurely grounded conscious- ness, with appropriate brain localization. Even quantum-level variations should be amplified by collisions sufficiently to transmute to normal neural-level effects. 2.6. Matter, fields, and the Principle of Plausible Placement A substantive identity for consciousness in critical segments of the brain may be rooted in some type of matter or associated with coherent force fields arising from brain matter. In principle, matter and their force fields are essentially equivalent and can be viewed as different faces of the same reality. Yet, there are clear con- ceptual, practical, and deeper physical differences. At the quantum-mechanical level matter particles (fermions) are not the same as force carrier particles (bosons). At the physiological level, the local, regional, and global electrical volume current fluxes and their associated electrical fields arise from a heterogeneous collection of separate intermingled neural subsystems of differing chemicals, structure, and function. Probably the best fit of a larger field association in a two-factor approach would be to suppose these fields are activating factors which activate consciousness in local protoconscious hypermatter. This works well when the natural occurrence of this hypermatter corresponds to plausible occurrences of consciousness. The alternative supposition, that the larger force fields themselves are protoconscious while some forms of matter are activators is more problematic (Sec. 5.3). A substantive identification of consciousness with particular subsets of matter or their fields guides searches for its localization within the structures of the brain. It also guides considerations of the extent and locations of consciousness in non-human organisms and of metaphysical speculations regarding the place of consciousness in the universe. It can enforce the Principle of Plausible Placement which asks one to justify why, if consciousness relates to, for example, an electric field in the brain, it does not also relate to other electrical fields both within and external to the brain (and similarly for any brain-matter hypothesis). 2.7. Consciousness and physics Physics is the science of matter, and as been so central, at least since Aristotle, always along with co-equal sister sciences of Biology, Psychology, and Social Sci- ences. Physics describes all matter in the universe, including that of the bodies of living organisms and their physiological systems including human brains. Nonethe- less, humans have always recognized that the sister sciences each described levels of operational organization each answerable more to its own interests than to the oth- ers. Moreover, and more fundamentally, the vast majority of peoples and presumably individuals, over mankind’s 100 000 or so years, have taken nature to include sub- stantial extra-physical as well as physical dimensions. The former involve qualities April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 87 of the individual subjective psyche such as conscious awareness, autonomous willful action, and a range of human sensibilities such as emotions, imaginations, reflections, judgments, and intuitions; but also a larger realm of apparently external motive cur- rents and influences on the large and small courses of societies, humans, animals, and ambient nature generally. One thinks, for example, of the numerous qualities attributed to Gods and mythical heroes of ancient and classical cultures through- out the world. All this has always been universally considered by much of mankind to reflect a spiritual dimension of existence which co-exists with the physical, each powerful in its own realm, but strongly subject to the influences of the other, a picture that seems to mirror the relationship of consciousness and brain. Our own time has seen the resultant accumulation of some three hundred years of intense progress in physics which now seems to have outlined the main structures and processes of apparently nearly all the matter in the universe, ranging from billions of times smaller to billions of times larger than the typical dimensions of our own earthly life. So sweepingly comprehensive, inclusive, successful, and grand are its theories, that physicist proclaim, and the world accepts, its integrated theories as a “theory of everything”. External spiritual effects are widely seen as non-existent superstitions, and life and the existential qualities of human existence are taken as secondary qualities of the physical matter of biological and brain structures, even though the nature of the relationship is obscure. Within science, we have been led to believe that all is ultimately physical. This work sees the existential nature of consciousness as a unique dimension distinct from the physical even though it is highly intimate with and is rooted within the physical matter of the brain. The nature of this relationship of dimensions within the brain ultimately needs to be characterized in itself in a meaningful way, as well as the particular kinds of experiential and willful interrelations it holds. This path may suggest new physical grounds for assessing traditional metaphysical and popular views of consciousness and spirit. Physics itself proceeds according to interpretations of mathematical predictions from theoretically-grounded equation systems. The basic equation systems of physics are pristine formulations of very grand generalized universal principles which have emerged from vast numbers of careful critical challenging experimentation over long periods of time and in many separate laboratories. Our subject matter is described by three levels of physics: traditional (supposedly deterministic, but see [41]) classical physics of neural level processes (neurons, glial cells, particle fluxes in brain fluids, molecular chemistry); quantum mechanical physics (within Heisenberg uncertainty) of fundamental particles (electrons, quarks) which make up the atoms of brain ions, molecules, and cells; and string theory whose strings are seen as the ultimate com- mon dynamic structural basis of all fundamental quantum particles; and hence of each element of all the matter in the universe including that of the brain. It does not seem necessary to bring cosmic macrophysics (with its relativity theories) into consciousness study. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 88 MacGregor & Vimal The bulk of string theory consists of theoretical predictions from the single gov- erning equation of quantum mechanics adapted to primordial origins of matter from a pregnant initially dimensionless micro-pin-point void. Corroborative experimen- tation is so far minimal, but the logical coherence and the correspondence with the strongly supported body of quantum mechanical predictions are strong and fertile enough to have achieved broad acceptance throughout the discipline. Yet, whether one can reliably follow the predictions of such arcane mathematics even within, let alone beyond, the range of quantum observations which sustain them (as string theory does) into the deepest secrets of existentiality might well give one pause. Still, this is what theoretical physics has done since Newton, and the alternatives are to satisfy it, restructure it, or live with obscurity within or outside of science. 3. Possible Physical Substrates of Consciousness in Inorganic Matter The next four sections of this paper pursue the grounding of protoconsciousness in matter and the progressive activation or drawing out of conscious experience from it by various activating agents in all levels of the organized neural structures of the brain. We call matter elements carriers of consciousness if their degree of protoconsciousness is below a critical level such that it is not expressed as con- sciousness. Sets of particles whose levels of protoconsciousness are subthreshold, but especially prone to conscious expression are called hyperparticles. All this is in an explicit grounding in physical and biological theory and matter of the concept of co-evolution and co-development of matter and consciousness introduced in [80]. Here, we will seek the substantive grounding of consciousness in all levels of specific structures of matter in terms of physical and biological science. We will lay out brief substantive summaries of foundations and fundamentals in these sciences all in this one place so as to more clearly focus on their integration in this search for the emergence, nature, deep structures, and localizations of consciousness. Suggested candidates are indicated within or close to the fundamental material and labeled in bold print. 3.1. Candidate consciousness and string theory In contemporary string theory physics, the universe is initially a pinpoint void preg- nant with creative potentiality for matter and energy [28,29]. This is identified as Candidate C. The first material manifestations are shards of individual strings and energy which continually emerge jointly with antistrings and antienergy and recom- bine into the peculiar pregnant nothingness of the void. Each string has eleven possible dimensions which are initialed curled inside a nugget one Planck length (= 10−35 m = 10−29 µ) cubed in which all the space, matter, and energy of the universe are contained. Every individual string corresponds to an individual fundamental April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 89 particle of quantum physics and its vibrational mode defines which type of parti- cle it is. Early on, all the strings settle into the vibrational mode corresponding to gravitons (the force carrier particle of gravity) producing a harmonious symphonic coherence of collective vibration. A sudden brief input of energy escalates the temperature immediately to incred- ibly high levels, producing a homogeneous frenetic roiling hot primordial cosmic plasma consisting of untold numbers of emerging and self-annihilating matter/anti- matter pairs. The tumult drives four dimensions to expand as three-dimensional space and time, thus creating the space and time of our universe, and the expan- sion causes the temperature to gradually drop to 1032 K in one Planck time = 10−43 seconds. Physicists have different ideas as to the unidentified dimensions [4,26,28,29, 32,39,62]. Most think of them as additional spatial dimensions or qualities of space. All believe they define the properties of our universe. All dimensions are seen as interwoven in the fabric of the universe itself. The expansions of the other seven dimensions are resisted by circularly wrapped strings and are seeking certain reso- nant shapes (Calabi-Yau shapes) of vibration which may encourage them to expand. Consciousness shares basic dimension-like qualities with space and time [4,55,82], yet differs from these in major ways. All provide a kind of open illuminating open space wherein the particles in which they are open can be separated, spread out, placed, distanced, seen in locational relationship to each other, and thus be consid- ered as on a stage. Consciousness differs from space and time in applying to not all matter but only some. A two-factor theory which attributes protoconsciousness to a string dimension(s) of existentiality and the activation of it to secondary activating agents very nicely grounds the subject in physical theory as required by the clear relationship of con- sciousness to the brain. It also provides the basis for predicting the selective occur- rence of consciousness within particular elements of the human brain and some unclear range beyond, involving at least some other related species which could be predicted by further specifications in the theory. Perhaps one of the many complexly contorted shapes of organic molecules or their fields might trigger a resonance with Calabi-Yau shapes to produce a string expan- sion in some fundamental particle(s) of the parent molecule. fMRI studies have sug- gested that the transmitter system of the amino acid glutamate seems closely related to consciousness, and the glutamatergic pathways seems highly consciousness-related as discussed in Sec. 5.1. If this happens reliably at normal temperatures and con- ditions, then it could recur de novo with each new occurrence of that molecule. Alternatively, and more likely, the initial activation was perhaps a highly unlikely event that occurred perhaps only once within some geometrically complex genetic material in a fortuitous combination of activating agents, and thus characterizes organisms which carry that genetic material. Perhaps, for example, the potential for consciousness received a boost in some selected complex Calabi-Yau-related organic molecule during the same long hot April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 90 MacGregor & Vimal period which saw the emergence of life on earth (Sec. 4.1). If this effect depended on the higher temperature, it would need to become associated with a genetic molecule for its effects to be passed on. Its evolutionary trajectory and likely progressive enhancement by subsequent activators would define those of consciousness. For example, if an early enhanced protoconscious organic molecule involved a hox gene, only animalia would be so activated (Sec. 4.3). Within these suppositions, protoconsciousness would be an unrealized potential for existentiality in the fabric of the universe and every one of its particles. Conscious- ness experience would occur only in a distinct subset of “hyperstrings” which had incurred expansion of the existentiality dimension by activating agents. These would have the potential to imbue their parent matter and its further energetic transac- tions with awareness. The quantum particles and molecules which the hyperstrings underlie would be “hyperparticles” and “hypermolecules”, refer to Candidate D. Thus, the string dimensional hypothesis produces the same effective potential duality in all quantum particles as does the protoexperience postulate [80], and both approaches point to further enhancements for the emergence of consciousness. The string dimension hypothesis simply underscores the duality and grounds it in the dimensional fabric of the universe. The identification of further activating agents on hyperparticles to threshold levels identifies specific localizations of realized consciousness. (see also Penrose [55]). There is an attractive overall appeal of direct simplicity in these views which see all the matter of the universe endowed with space and time to move about in from its onset, and some selected living matter achieving an internal space of true realized existentiality from its own organic matter. 3.2. The origin and evolution of matter During all the initial time of strings up through one Planck time following the big bang, all four forces are unified (gravity, strong nuclear, weak, electromagnetic). At the end of this period, gravity splits off from the other three forces. Eddies and clumps appear in the roiling soup. There is a phase change at 10−36 seconds which causes a great rapid 30-fold inflation of the universe followed by a rapid cooling. At 10−34 seconds and some 1027 K, the strong force splits off from the remaining two. The universe continues to cool and expand. Vibrations diversify and the full array of quantum mechanical particles begins to emerge after about 10−32 seconds. The weak and electromagnetic forces split at 10−10 seconds. All matter remains as individual quantum particles and above 109 K for a few seconds. The first protons, neutrons, and other baryons form from clumping quarks at 10−5 seconds. At 10−2 seconds, electrons and positrons emerge. After 1 second and below 1010 K, there are no more conversions between light and matter. Matter has become dominant over antimatter (that is, some antimatter has disappeared), and the universe of matter has become stable in these senses. About this time, there is primordial nucleosynthesis of the nuclei of hydrogen and helium (also some April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 91 deuterium and lithium). The universe becomes a dense opaque plasma of electrically- charged particles, photons, electrons, protons, neutrons, and nuclei. Everything is dark because photons (light) are repeatedly knocked around by collisions. At about 380,000 years and 103.5 K, the first atoms are formed by the capturing of electrons into orbits around nuclei. Photons can now flow freely and the uni- verse is thus suddenly transparent. This moment provides the signature of a cosmic microwave background radiation observable still today. Stars appear at about 108 years, including our sun, solar system, and earth. Heavier elements like iron and oxygen are formed in stars. Some 50 to 100 billion galaxies form in the first few billions years. The big bang occurred about thirteen billion years ago. 3.3. Candidate consciousness and quantum mechanics The second significant level is the level of fundamental particles described by quan- tum mechanics [16,27,40,53,54,57]. Since these are the material manifestations of string vibrations, any particular set of strings associated with protoconsciousness by the uncurling of a string dimension would materialize as a set of quantum “hyper- particles” with that quality. This could involve some given subset(s) of some given type(s) of particle, according to the activating agent which expands the protocon- sciousness dimension. In this approach, the potential for existentiality (protoconsciousness and pro- toexperience) is fundamentally associated in a substantive duality with some fundamental material particles of physics, and through this with the molecules, cells, and systems composed of these. This duality is separate from but similar to the quantum wave-particle duality. The approach entails an effective larger order substance-monism duality which bypasses the difficulties of traditional monism and dualism (both of which entail both substance and property dualism), including the problem of causation and free will [41,45,46,80,81]. Vimal [80] has labeld this a “dual aspect” relationship characterized by: (i) a material aspect in the physical quali- ties of all quantum matter particles (fermions) and quantum force carrier particles (bosons); and (ii) a phenomenal aspect rooted in the elementary protoconsciousness of each fermion and boson. The full range of objects in the current standard model of quantum physics [16,26,53] includes 13 force carriers (bosons) and 24 particles (fermions) of two types: leptons and quarks [in three families: ordinary, heavy, heavier], all arranged in a simple ordered Table 1. The most significant quantum features in this work regarding consciousness are the hypothetical protoconscious hyperparticles and their possible undergirding in string dimensions. Others [33,54,56,58] have suggested roles of coherent quantum mechanical fields in consciousness. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle has been argued to provide a basis for free will in neural integration, and this is buttressed by the demonstration that collisions should transmute even quantum level uncer- tainties to normal neural operating levels [41,46]. To qualify so, such effects should April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 92 MacGregor & Vimal Table 1. The standard model of quantum physics. leptons leptons quarks quarks ordinary matter electron (−1) electron neutrino (0) up (+2/3) down (−1/3) − >protons = 2 − >neutrons = 1 up, 1 down up, 2 down only in big bang muon (heavy) muon neutrino charm (heavy) strange (heavy) cosmic rays & tau (heavier) tau neutrino top bottom (heavier) accelerators 24 fermions = [6 leptons + 18 quarks (6 types × 3 colors)] × 4 (up or down spin × parti- cle/antiparticle) ∼ 96 states. 13 force carriers (bosons) = 1 graviton + 8 gluons + 3 intermediate vector bosons + 1 Higgs particle + 1 photon ∼ 29 states. 1 graviton (gravity force) — × 2 states: right or left spin 8 gluons (strong nuclear force) — × 2 states = 16 states: right or left spin 3 intermediate vector bosons (weak nuclear force) — × 3 states = 9 states (1 Higgs particle (weak nuclear force) no spin [not counted because not yet observed]) 1 photon (electromagnetic force) — × 2 states: right or left spin manifest in neural circuits serving overall and voluntary motor integration such as the substania nigra and globus pallidus in the striatum [30,50,81]. With or with- out substantive identification, free conscious decision-making could be masked in “minute adjustments” within the uncertainty limit of selected state variables affect- ing these circuits [45,46]. Refer to Candidate E. 3.4. Candidate consciousness and chemistry The science of the structure of matter at the level of atoms and molecules (up to and including inorganic hydrocarbons and the organic carbohydrates of living matter), our third level of interest, is one of the most pure, powerful, and pleas- ing in all of science [24,78]. Its roots consist of two grand integrative visions, the table of the elements, and the Bohr atom. Elements are the observable forms of individual atoms found in nature. The table of elements arranges all the elements on earth (and presumably in the universe) in a two-dimensional table that reveals highly systematic groupings and common underlying structural relations, proper- ties, and chemical proclivities for each group. There are some little over a hundred elements, and these are listed or even the table given in most dictionaries and all encyclopedias. The Bohr atom shows that all these things can be completely described by a simple generic model for the structures of atoms according to the orbits of electrons around their nuclei. Bohr’s atom is built on a picture of electrons in circular orbits around a point nucleus which contains protons and neutrons. Each different atom uses as many electrons as it has protons (so as to be electrically neutral). The central constraint of this model is that electrons can circle only in a relatively small number April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 93 of distinct orbits (called shells) and each shell allows no more than a prescribed maximum number of electrons [2,10,18,36,54,83] progressing outwards. Electrons always tend towards the next open orbit closest to the nucleus. This rather strange rule, including exactly these numbers, comes from the quantum mechanical assump- tion that electrons are not only quantum particles but also waves which, if they are to occupy circular orbits, they must do so in orbits whose circumference is equal to an integral multiple of the electron’s wavelength. This restriction constrains shells to a discrete set of allowable distances from the nucleus (each one thereby associ- ated with a given energy level corresponding to the electrical attraction between electron and nucleus), and also, since quantum mechanics stipulates that only one electron can occupy a single given state, the maximum numbers of electrons for each shell. Chemistry consists of the combining, breakdown, and recombining of atoms and molecules together into larger structures and compounds of one or more differ- ent atoms. All structural groups of atoms (molecules) are held together by electri- cal forces between the orbital electrons of a given atom and the nuclear protons of another, and modulated by repulsive electrical forces between the like charges of the different atoms. These interatomic forces produce three kinds of bonds all of which are determined primarily by electrons in the outer orbits. These bonds are the central operative keys to the organization of molecular matter. They represent the action mechanisms of the essential integrating molecular forces and in this entail the storage and release of molecular energy. Ionic bonds form between neighboring atoms one of which gives all its outer orbit electrons to fill out the outer orbit openings in its neighboring atom. Ionic bonds are very strong and produce highly stable structures. Ionic bonds are directional between adjacent positive and negative ions, and therefore materials made of them are usually brittle. They are good insulators since all the electrons are held tightly. Examples of ionic bonding are salts, sand, glass, ceramics, rubies, and sapphires. Metallic bonds form when outer electrons of all atoms in a group disengage from their parent atom to flow freely around the collection of positive ions they have thereby produced. This is a structural arrangement based on the sharing of electrons by all the nuclei. More than three-fourths of the elements form metallic bonding. These bonds are not directional, so metals can be bent without breaking. The mobile electrons reflect light, so metals are shiny. Metals are excellent conduc- tors of electricity and heat because their electrons move freely. Covalent bonding consists of the localized sharing of electrons by neighboring nuclei. Covalent bonding occurs in many non-metallic substances including all com- mon liquids and gases (such as water, carbon dioxide, compounds of nitrogen and oxygen). Carbon especially is the most versatile of all covalently bonding elements and forms many large molecules with large quantities of stored energy in these bonds. Carbon-based atoms are utilized widely as fuels (hydrocarbons) and, for our purposes, most especially by the structures of the organic molecules of life, the hydrocarbons (sugars, lipids, amino acids, proteins, DNA). April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 94 MacGregor & Vimal Large collections of matter can exist in any of four states: solid, liquid, gas, plasma. Solids have a stable shape and an inner molecular three-dimensional arrangement with strong, sometimes directional bonds. Crystals are regular three- dimensional patterns of atoms. Most metals, rocks, concrete, and pottery are formed of many interlocking crystals. Many solids, all referred to as glass, do not have regu- lar crystalline structure. Liquids change shape but keep their volume, their particles being held together but able to slide past each other, something like sugar in a closed bag. Gases are collections of atoms or molecules that expand to fill the available volume. Plasma consists of the collection of nuclei (or their separated constituents) and electrons obtained from a gas heated to a very high temperature sufficient to strip the electrons off the nuclei. Changes in temperature and pressure can cause substances to change state. Chemistry then involves the storage, release, and exchange of energy in the com- bining and recombination of atoms and molecules as elements, minerals, compounds, and larger hydrocarbon and carbohydrate molecules, including presumably all mat- ter of the universe. All the processes of chemistry are well understood in micro- scopic detail and described precisely by the known laws of physics. All this seems ultimately so very predictable and machine-like so as to leave no clear opening for conscious-like characteristics outside of perhaps quantum mechanics (second level), and organic molecules (fifth level). There are a number of highly energetic and volatile phenomena, obscurities, and unexplained characteristics of the vast cosmic macroscopic universe (fourth level) including: black holes, stars, supernovae explosions, galaxies and galactic collisions, dark matter, dark energy, neutrinos, Higgs particles, and more. These uncertain areas may hide some ingredients regarding consciousness, and perhaps regarding the always intriguing possibility of alternative forms of conscious life. 4. Possible Physical Substrates of Consciousness in Organic Matter and Life 4.1. The origin and evolution of life The fifth level of interest is that of the organic molecules (carbohydrates: lipids, sugars, amino acids, proteins, DNA) which constitute and produce the molecular structures and operations of life. Life on earth is thought to have emerged once only among these molecules in a syncytium in a very hot period during and following a long period of astronomical bombardment of earth by meteors: strands of large DNA- like molecules (probably because of their geometric shape) evolve the properties of reproducing themselves, and eventually producing variants and fragments useful in their continued self-reproduction, and of overseeing these productions (Sec. 6). The heavy meteoric bombardment of earth lasted from 4.5 to 4.0 billion years ago (bya), after which it gradually cooled. Thus, for more than 500 million years, the entire globe was covered with boiling slime plasma during which complex April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 95 carbohydrate molecules repeatedly formed, broke up, and reformed in untold num- bers of combinations and recombination until a strand of DNA molecule formed which was able to reproduce itself which it did, repeatedly. This first emergence of life occurred during the cooling period after 4.0 bya. By about 3.8 bya, archae and bacteria had formed. These are the first currently recognized living organisms, labeled prokaryotes or prokarya (pre- or proto-cells). The first aerobic prokarya and the first eukaryotes (true cells) appeared at about 2.5 bya. Multicellular eukarya appeared after about 2 bya. At 1000 million years ago (mya), the common ancestor to plantae, fungi, and animalia appeared. The Paleozoic period from about 570 to 245 mya saw great diversity and the first shells, vertebrates, and land animals. The following mesozoic period saw the rise of dinosaurs, the first mammals, and flowering plants. A large meteor hit the earth about 65 mya, which impact clouded the sky with dust all over the earth causing much vegetation to die out and the dinosaurs with it. This opens the cenozoic period in which mammals multiply and diversify explosively, becoming dominant. The first primate appeared about 70 mya, the first great apes appear about 9 mya, and the first hominidae (immediate relatives to humans; e.g., Australopithecus afarens ∼“lucy”) about 5 mya. Homo sapiens (brains > 700 ml, e.g., homo erectus) diverged from chimps (brains ∼ 400 ml) about 3 mya. Homo sapien sapiens (we) emerged about 0.1 mya ∼125 000 years ago. Life at the molecular and cellular level is recently being recognized as at least as richly diverse and certainly more tenacious than that of any of the larger multicellular organisms [42,79,82,83]. Traditionally, zoological trees have been con- structed on the basis of overall morphology with single-celled organisms grouped together as protozoa with four subgroups: flagellata = matigorpha (with flagella); rhizopoda = sarcodina (amoeba-like); sporozoa (using spores); and ciliophora (with cilia). Protists are single-celled eukaryotes. In recent decades, taxonomists have been restructuring the taxonomical chart on the basis of DNA rather than morphology, which gives a much better indication of true phylogenetic relationships and evolu- tion [79]. This view is also much closer to fundamental molecular operations which are a major characteristic in all living organisms. 4.2. Organic chemistry Carbon (6), Hydrogen (1), and Oxygen (8) are the central atoms of carbohydrate molecules. They make up 98% of life’s atoms, and Nitrogen (7) and Phosphorus (15) are also essential [42,78]. All the four major atoms are among the eight smallest atoms, indicated by their atomic numbers which are their numbers of nuclear protons and indicate their places in the table of elements. Carbon has an unsurpassed ability to form covalent bonds to up to four neigh- boring atoms, as it needs four electrons to fill out its outer shell. It can form double and even triple covalent bonds. Some or all of these bonds can be to other carbon atoms. It uses this property to form carbon chains as backbones of molecules which April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 96 MacGregor & Vimal may be straight, branched, ringed, or any imaginable combinations of these shapes. Carbon-based molecules are electrically neutral and are bonded together in cova- lent bonds and by the van der Waals attraction of orbital electrons to the nuclei of neighboring atoms. Many are very long. Amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, sugars, and other carbohydrates underlie the structures and operations of life. They rely on modular construction and their three-dimensional geometrical shape. All proteins are large polymers of a hundred to thousands of amino acids connected by peptide bonds [C–N]. Only twenty different kinds of amino acids occur in living organisms of thousands of pos- sible kinds. All amino acids have a central carbon atom with four attachments: a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group [O–OH], an amine [NH2 ], a variable “side group” [e.g., H or chain, ring, or branched structure]. Two amino acids form a “peptide bond” [C–N] by linking one’s carboxyl group [COOH] with the other’s amine group [NH2 ] and releasing a water molecule. Proteins are individualized by their unique sequences of amino acids (primary structure), by their exceedingly complex and often kinky three-dimensional shapes which reflect the forming of open spirals, flat sheets, loops, and other foldings (secondary structure) by their sequences of con- stituent amino acids, and further by folding up governed by the pulling together by hydrogen bonds of amino acids that are widely separated in the chain (tertiary structure). Proteins are the essential working molecules of life. They serve as structural building blocks and as hormones, enzymes, gatesmen for physiological transmissions, and transport carriers. A typical shape-dependent protein action uses grooves and furrows on its surface which exactly match the shapes of, for instance, two different target molecules. When two appropriate molecules attach to these spots, the protein changes shape to snap the two pieces together. The very special nucleic acid, DNA, is a long double helix formed by a twisting of a ladder-like structure of two linear sides [made of alternating 5-carbon deoxyribose and phosphate molecules] held together by alternating rungs [made of two pairs of amino acids: cytosine-guanine and adenine-thymine] one rung per side link. The DNA molecules are the central operant ingredients of life, directing and governing its building and operations through proteins and embodying its reproduction by splitting itself. Lipids are water-insoluble fats that serve vitally important functions as cell mem- branes, energy storage, hormones, light-absorption, and other specialized functions. All lipids are made of carbon chains with hydrogen and a little oxygen. Fatty acids form fat cells which store energy and provide insulation. They are chains of 4 to 36 carbon atoms with a hydrophobic end of three hydrogen atoms and a hydrophilic end of COOH. Saturated fatty acids have single C–C bonds and unsaturated one have double C=C bonds. The lipids that form cell membranes are phospholipids with hydrophobic CH3 groups at their exposed ends and hydrophilic phosphorus and oxygen atoms at a rounded center which bends around to become an effective “end”. In water, these April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 97 molecules reduce their configurational energy by arranging themselves into a double layer membrane some of which close to form the outer walls of living cells with the hydrophobic ends (negative charge) on the inside and the hydrophilic bend (positive charge) on the outside. The semipermeable nature of these membranes is pervasively used to modulate the inward and outward diffusions of a variety of chem- icals vital to the entire range of physiological functions. Membrane surfaces of many cells become studded with receptor proteins to selectively gate inward or outward fluxes. Sugars are the simplest and commonest carbohydrates. They typically have a single ring-like structure of 5, 6, or 7 carbon atoms. Glucose, a 6-carbon ring sugar, plays a central role in the cellular metabolism of animals and plants where it is broken down into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is in turn is transmitted to many local sites of operative physiological actions where it produces 12 000 calories of free energy per mole of ATP. Glucose is especially vital to brain function because brain neurons do not store energy in themselves but rather rely on a continuous supply of glucose from the blood (often via glial cells). Saccharides are sugars which form cellulose (which provides important structural matter for plants) and starch (extensive networks of glucose). 4.3. Consciousness and molecular life All living organisms are single cells or consist of multiple cells which act cooper- atively. Single celled organisms are now seen in three main groups: archae, bacte- ria, and single-celled eukaryotes. The early proto-life molecules stabilize as double stranded DNA molecules which exert overall control and surround themselves within walls. The earliest cells are prokarya (archae and bacteria) which enclose little more than a single double-stranded DNA molecule and cellular fluid, except that archae also hold an unusual kind of lipid which provides a primitive thicker and less per- meable wall-like membrane. Archae and bacteria have no true nuclei, only DNA encased by an outer wall or membrane. They might be taken as nuclei rather than cells. Indeed, the first eukaryote evolved from these prokaryotes, at some point sub- suming one as its nucleus. Eukarya are considerably larger than prokarya and have thinner selectively per- meable membranes and DNA-containing nuclei, mitochondria (for metabolic energy production), and plastids (such as chloroplasts for producing energy from light and other types). The mitochondria and plastids of the earliest eukaryotes are thought to have arisen from the subsuming of bacteria: mitochondria from something like the contemporary proteobacterium paracoccus; and the first chloroplast from an early purple cynobacterium something like contemporary synechococcus — the ances- tor of all chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are one type of plastids which are a general class of rather stiff cellular material forming structures like: histones (rods around which their DNA twist gaining structural rigidity, highly useful in their repeated reproductions); and an endoplasmic reticulum and tubulin which make up a kind of April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 98 MacGregor & Vimal cellular skeleton. Cells are remarkably varied in size, shape, and function. All can survive independently. All can perform all the essential functions of a living organ- ism including metabolism, reproduction, overall direction of its life processes, and self-supporting interactions with ambient circumstances, often including impressive mobility. DNA provides overall governing control in archae and bacteria. In eukaryotes, the nucleus, mitochondria, and plastids all have their own type of DNA and these three types of DNA act cooperatively as a “consortium” in governing the production processes of these cells. Further, the DNA of animal cells develops “Hox genes” which serve to control other sets of genes by switching them off and on. These complex organic molecules at the heart of the origin, operations, sur- vival, and duration of life, with their concern for overall regulation, physiological operations and well being, are major candidates for intimate association with con- sciousness. Our intuitive feelings that consciousness might be associated with at least some forms of non-human life but not inert matter are consistent with this in Candidate A. The initial origin of life, DNA, and perhaps some other larger organic molecules may be associated with the emergence of protoconsciousness or consciousness itself or its enhancement. Such roles might or might not entail par- ticular geometric configurations. The intensity or potential for consciousness might increase from single DNA through DNA-consortia and further organic controls such as Hox genes, or be associated solely with any one of these levels. Of the simpler multicelled organisms (four slimes, two seaweeds, some fungi, some metazoa, sponges, and some coelenterates), many form colonies of clumped single cells, and more interestingly, some fungi exhibit a linear structure of multiple nuclei interconnected by a single thread of protoplasm within a single common membrane. However, none of these seem strongly relevant to consciousness. 5. Possible Physical Substrates of Consciousness in Molecular Metabolic and Global Regulatory Systems The sixth level of development is that of physiological systems including especially: [a]-reproductive systems [many of which produce separate molecular gamete-forming and procreated forms, often with significant alternating haploid (having only one complete set of chromosomes, as do gametes) and diploid (having two complete sets of chromosomes, usually one from each parent) generations]; [b]-metabolic sys- tems (evolving to coordinated: digestive, respiratory, and circulatory systems); and [c]-regulatory systems (which include: molecular chemical diffusions, homeostatic controls, and endocrine and neural [autonomic and central] systems). Reproductive systems are embodied in the very heart of the molecular fabric of living organisms (DNA), in gendered bodily structures of most larger species, and in often unconscious instincts and conscious reflexes and arousals. Procreational reproduction in all organisms, including sexual reproduction, is rooted in the split- ting of DNA molecules and fundamentally serves population rather than individual April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 99 interests. In addition to this, DNA reproduction also serves the protective mainte- nance of individual life in, for example, inflammation reactions and the continual replenishment of bodily tissue via stem cells in multicellular organisms. Systemically- driven sexual behavior, sexual procreation, and nurturing also are secondarily made strong individual concerns through neuroendocrine effects and neurochemical drive and reward circuits. Metabolic and regulatory systems and consciousness, on the other hand, are primarily very strong individual concerns and secondarily relate to populations. All three of these types of systems have, in humans, both very strong unconscious foundations and strong relations to consciousness awareness and to some degree of conscious control. 5.1. Metabolic systems The energetic relation of an organism to its ambient conditions drives the evolution- ary development and thus structure of their bodies and metabolic systems [79]. For example, the morphology of virtually all larger species are determined by how they eat or capture sunlight. A vertebrate, for example, can be seen as a linear digestive tube with controls and appendages. The animal kingdom (Animalia) begins with a mouth and gut, and some of its major divisions are identified and named according to these. Other major classifications of organisms are made according to what types of energy and matter they metabolize. Organismic metabolism can be characterized into four types by the combinations of [using light (“photo”) or chemicals (“chemo”) as the source of energy] with [“auto” = (producing organic from inorganic chemicals) or “hetero” = (needing organic chemicals to make organic chemicals)]. • Plants are photoautotrophic using light for energy and CO2 for carbon (to make organic molecules). • Fungi are chemoheterotrophic using chemicals (inorganic or organic) for energy and organic chemicals for carbon. • Animals are chemoheterotrophic using organic chemicals for energy and organic chemicals for carbon. The archae, bacteria, and remaining eukarya utilize one or another of the basic four types across their molecular- and cellularly-defined classification. Some bacte- ria are photoheterotrophs (using light for energy and organic chemicals for carbon). Some archae and some bacteria are chemoautotrophs (using inorganic chemicals for energy and CO2 for carbon). Many contemporary archae have astounding diets cor- responding to their hot lightless homes deep in the ocean. Many produce organic molecules and energy from sulfur products (thermophiles), and others (chemoau- tolithotrophs) do so from stones. Others survive on salt diets (halophiles) or generate methane from CO2 . An early purple cyanobacteria (similar to contemporary synechoccus) originated photosynthesis thus becoming the first chloroplast and was eventually subsumed into an early eukaroyte as its “plastid”. Another early proteobacterium (similar to April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 100 MacGregor & Vimal contemporary paracoccus), was the first burner of oxygen and was subsumed into an early eukaryote as its mitochondria. This proteobacterium was a “microaerophile” using small amounts of oxygen. No early single-celled organism produced oxygen and most used anaerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration blossomed after plants multiplied sufficiently to produce an oxygen-rich atmosphere. Red seaweeds, brown seaweeds, and plants (which include green algae) are large eukaryote autotrophs. Their central metabolic activity is photosynthesis in chloro- plasts. Their behavior is largely simple physical reflexes which does not seem to suggest any conscious control. The bodies of terrestrial plants are developed to capture sunlight, retain water, channel water and nutrients, and protect and dis- perse spores or seeds. Several classes of chloroplasts are found all of which derive from synechoccus-like early purple cynobacteria. This is not pursued in this paper because this path does not seem strongly related to consciousness. All this basic metabolism, which is common to most living cells in all living organisms, has to do with the DNA of the procarya and of the nuclei, mitochon- dria, and chloroplasts of uni- and multicellular eukarya. All organisms break down and recombine their ingested inorganic and organic matter according to princi- ples of organic chemistry to form the organic molecules which are required by their bodies and physiology in order to store, distribute, and then release energy to drive these constructions and processes in most cells of the body. Protocon- sciousness might be associated with some molecule(s) or process(es) in some of this Candidate G. 5.2. Molecular and global regulatory processes — the wisdom of the body All operations of prokaryotes and unicellular eukaryotes are carried out by DNA and other organic molecules. Most, perhaps all, regulatory operations of larger physio- logical systems also manifest ultimately in molecular effects, including most notably, metabolic chemical reactions, protein-mediated structural constructions, large-scale diffusion of nutrients or ions. Indeed, life in larger organisms, at least, may be best characterized as a continual cybernetic balancing of untold numbers of chemical reactions, diffusion fluxes and volume currents driven by passive concentration and pressure gradients, ambient electric fields, and active molecular “gating processes” through cellular membranes and brain fluids in pursuit of the vital overall hetero- geneous multidimensional quasi-equilibrium of homeostasis. This “wisdom of the body” [8], is a multiplexed structuro-functional hierarchy engaging operative inter- active relations within and across each of molecular, tissue and organ, system, and global levels of coordination. Refer to Candidate H. Brain glial cells also are contin- ually engaged in the transmissions of nutrients between capillaries (or choroid plexi) and neurons, and some neuroglial electrical ionic fluxes as well (Secs. 6.1, 6.2). The ionic neuroelectric volume currents discussed next are a particularly relevant type of regulatory physiological fluxes. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 101 5.3. Global electrical fields, ionic volume currents, plausible placement, origin & enhancement of protoconsciousness The nervous system in particular operates essentially in terms of a huge, overpow- eringly intricate interwoven web of electrical ionic volume currents and their fields, all ultimately patterned by the structures of neurons and neuronal interconnections. Consciousness could be associated with such volume currents or fields in principle by either: the enhancing activation of a protoconsciousness already present in selected element(s) of brain matter (i.e., currents and fields could be activating agents). The alternative possibility is that protoconsciousness or consciousness itself is directly associated with the physical qualities of the volume currents and fields in them- selves, with or without some other activating agent(s). The principle of plausible placement could likely be satisfied in cases of substantive identities of consciousness with highly specific underlying elements themselves or with volume currents and fields of highly specific elements, but not so readily for composite electrical currents or electrical fields in themselves which occur ubiquitously in the inert and inorganic universe and in man-made technology. There are several grades of three main types of electrical fields in the brain and several underlying physical drivers of these. The normal operational mode of neural systems throughout the entire animal kingdom is rooted in the gated fluxes of ions in closed loops through neuron membranes and both intra- and extracellular fluid. These are triggered by brief localized changes in membrane permeability (gating) at synapses and at sites of generation of action potentials. These current loops are three-dimensional. They often spread locally to influence neighboring neurons. Network geometry often produces significant confluences of these ionic fluxes to produce larger combined volume currents of regional and even global significance in the brain. The cellular level ionic currents are the definitive drivers of normal neural signaling. The higher order confluent local, regional, and global volume currents produce effect smaller modulatory influences on normal neural activity. These ionic currents are readily describable by simple current theory in terms of an electrical force field which acts in the same direction as the motion of the charges. These force fields and currents are lawfully related and essentially equivalent. They are the electrical signals most recorded and considered in electrophysiology. In a fuller description, the direct force fields of these simple closed loop ionic currents and their confluences as larger volume currents are the strongest part of a more general electromagnetic field which also includes a magnetic force field that arises from and acts on other brain currents with a normally much smaller mag- nitude. These forces are generally not considered much in neurophysiology but see [1,75]. The magnetic force of a simple closed two-dimensional circular current loop is perpendicular to the current loop and exerts a force perpendicular to the plane of the loop on other current loops (and moving charges). These effects are largely mitigated by the three-dimensionality of the currents and random-like spatial rela- tionships in much nervous tissue, but may become significant in brain circuits which April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 102 MacGregor & Vimal are highly ordered in structure, and indeed, many important neural networks are highly ordered [43,50,68,84]. As indicated in Sec. 3.2, several [33,54,56,58] have suggested roles of coherent quantum fields in consciousness, and others have suggested quantum dendritic webs with gap junctions [82]. In principle, fields of either type or any level could play either as protoconscious agent or activator. It is more direct, fundamental, and perhaps likely, to see pro- toconsciousness as a dimension of some selected brain elements and these fields as possible contributory or sole activators. Here, both the normal contributory activat- ing level of ionic currents and the much smaller normal electromagnetic fields would be taken as possible activators, perhaps the currents and their electrical fields most strongly and the electromagnetic fields less so. All possibilities for a field itself to be protoconscious and the matter selective would seem to require either attribut- ing of protoconsciousness to force carriers of the electrical forces (by string dimen- sions or otherwise) or the attribution of a new quantum charge to selected brain elements. Poznanski has advocated the highly attractive hypothesis of ionic volume cur- rents as a major substrate of consciousness, and indicated dense regions of dendritic neuropile as especially likely sites [59–61]. Refer to Candidate I. Neuropile involves rich often intermingling of diverse synaptic input upon rich sometimes intermingled diverse receiving neurons. Poznanski has further described a selective transmitter “cocktail” effect, where a collection of transmitters would be especially prone to consciousness. The two factor theory fits this nicely by predicting the possibility of distinct active selection of multiple protoconscious hyperparticles, perhaps accord- ing to geometric configurations. Neuropiles are ubiquitous in the nervous system. They may associate more with diffuse subcortical connnective junctions (such as found, for example, in the reticular core of the brain stem and other limbic junc- tions) rather than neocortical junctions like the main pyramidal cell dendrites which are electrically insulated by glial cells (Secs. 6.1–6.3). 6. Possible Physical Substrates of Consciousness in the Nervous System The nervous system is a likely candidate for progressive enhancements of conscious- ness, and the brain is the preeminent candidate. The human brain is 2% of total body weight, but uses 20% of the blood and oxygen supply [50]. The brain is contin- ually active in all states of waking or sleeping, although different regions are more or less active in different states or conditions. Different local circuits are intermittently intensely active. Neuroelectric activity and the richly diverse complexity of neuron functional geo- metry and neural circuits evolve from rudimentary ionic volume current fluxes and fields discussed more broadly in the preceding section. Segmented “ladder-net”-like April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 103 nervous systems of arthropods (ecdysozoic protostomia) and molluscs (lophoto- chozoic protosotmia) and the central homogenous circular nets of echinoderms (deuterostomia) exhibit cellular and perhaps local neural volume currents, post- synaptic potentials (PSPs), and action potentials in relatively simple but highly effective integrative neural circuits. Similarly, early vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles) show more advanced neural development of particularly highly diffusive interconnections in the reticular core of the spinal cord and brain stem, and highly active complex circuitry in many important subcortical and primitive cortical regions [64]. Any of these might provide enhancement of protoconsciousness. Birds are highly specialized with feathers for flying, beaks for eating, and claws for grasping and tearing. They have a poorly developed cortex, but highly developed neostriatum with unique lamination. Furthermore, they have very high metabolism and are homeothermic [64,79]. Refer to Candidate J. The maintenance of relatively high constant internal temperature (homeother- mia) of birds and mammals represents a significant large energetic expansion in vertebrates. This requires in mammals a ten-fold increase in nutritional intake and metabolism beyond that of reptiles [79]. This suggests a dramatic increase in active energy density in all metabolic processes and in the physiological and neural systems they supply. These increased energy densities would likely serve as enhancing acti- vators of consciousness. Mammals also exhibit considerable development of higher cortical and related subcortical neural circuitry [64]. Refer to Candidate K. Further flowering of consciousness might be associated as a partner in the coevo- lution of rich brain circuitry and behavioral dexterity occurring most notably in hominoidea ∼ great apes. Refer to Candidate L. Bigger brains in genus homo of hominidae (> 700 ml) and most especially in ourselves (homo sapien sapiens, 1450 ml) offer plausible grounds for yet further enhancements of consciousness. Especially intriguing is the continued increasing coevolution of versatility and dexterity with rich brain circuitry, including especially three-dimensional vision (associative visual neocortex). The additional dimension in vision might generalize as additional abstracted dimensions in apprehension and conceptualization or processing dimensions in similarly structured circuits in all neo- cortical areas, such as associative temporal, parietal, and frontal neocortex. These could provide quantal increases in all sorts of higher abstracted apprehension, men- tality, and representational creativity. Most especially, this expansive coevolution could provide the home for our quintessentially human capacity of imagination, refer to Candidate M. 6.1. The neural/neuroglial model Our final candidates offer a cooperative and mutually reinforcing relationship of neural and metabolic brain systems as well as vertical reinforcements with lower physical and organic levels. Refer to Candidate N. It is highly significant that there are probably more than ten times more glia cells than neurons, and these comprise April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 104 MacGregor & Vimal 40% of brain tissue. Neurons do not store energy reserves but depend totally on blood supply for energy-bearing metabolites. If the brain is deprived of the oxygen or glucose provided by the blood for more than 10 seconds, unconsciousness ensues and in minutes thereafter irreversible brain damage follows [50]. Glia cells provide nutrients (metabolites) to neurons, carry away waste, provide electrical insulation of neocortical pyramidal cells, and physical support for brain tis- sue. They may also play a much more significant role in overall neural operations and global regulation than has been recognized. This idea and the suggestion of their inti- mate association with consciousness has been recently suggested by Magistretti and Pellerin on the basis of their fMRI experiments [47] and echoed by Poznanski [59–61]. Astroglia cells surround synapses on neocortical pyramidal cells especially those involved in the plastic alterations of major neural memory banks, suggesting that much metabolism goes to the synaptic structuring and modifying of the vital opera- tive inner constructions which guide human living [59,61,Chapter 8 of 45]. Astroglial cells pass glucose to these neocortical pyramidal cells, produce glutamate by an anaerobic (non-oxidative) mechanism, and take up products of glutamate synaptic transmissions. Glucose serves aerobic (oxidative) production of ATP for widespread energy usage in neural tissue which has been thought to constitute 80% of brain energy usage. Synaptic activation of pyramidal cells produces a neural feedback to the astroglia to supply more nutrients to the neuron. Astroglia thus support continued activity of both glutamate transmissions and pyramidal neurons. Mag- gistretti and Pellerin suggest that the glutamate system uses by anaerobic means 80% of the brain’s energy supply. (This is quite remarkable and seems to contradict the long-held view that aerobic ATP production by glucose uses 80% [50]. Perhaps they are two joint or overlapping measures of the same energy usage as parts of the unified astroglia-pyramidal glutamate system.) More broadly, the brain’s glutamate system provides excitatory activations widely through the neocortex, the dendate gyrus of the hippocampus, the striatum (intimately associated with the substantia nigra and overall and voluntary motor integration in the basal ganglia [39,50,84]), and the cerebellum and spinal cord [50]. Notice that most of these areas relate well with the functions of consciousness iden- tified in Sec. 2.1. The functions of consciousness offered in the first paragraphs of this overview can be related to the glutamate system as follows: • thinking, imagination, dreaming, and the inner constructions (dendate gyrus and neocortex); • conscious planning (especially prefrontal neocortex); • sensation (sensory-related cortex: somesthetic, visual, auditory, gustatory; thala- mus: pain, temperature); • motor guidance (basal ganglia integration: striatum, substantia nigra, prefrontal cortex — these including overall and volitional influences); • direction of attention by modulation of reticular efferents by frontal cortex (Sec. 6.3). April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 105 6.2. The neuropile model and endymal-glial systems This work’s two-factor characterization of Poznanski’s identification of dense den- dritic neuropile as possible sites of consciousness and his idea of the selective trans- mitter cocktail of transmitter-receptor pairs (Sec. 5.3, [59–61]) can be applied to two major subcortical brain systems, the limbic system, and the endymal neuroglial system. The two main kinds of glia cells are endymal and astroglia. Endymal glia are associated with anaerobic respiration and choroid plexi in the cerebrospinal fluid. The choroid plexi line parts the walls of all four ventricles, making close contact with many vital subcortical integrating areas including the reticular for- mation, lateral hypothalamus, substantia nigra, and ventral thalamus, and the den- date gyrus of the archicortical hippocampus [50,64]. These areas relate closely to some of the functions of consciousness indicated in Sec. 2.1. There is a nice sym- metry in the supposition of protoconsciousness in each of two main metabolical glial systems of the brain. And there is much of conscious experience that asso- ciates with subrational and presumably subcortical characteristics like mood and emotions. Again, the main transmitter-receptor pairs of molecules and their geo- metrical configurations are implicated in Candidate O. There may be significant overlap between the limbic and endymal candidates. Yet, the limbic system blossoms in mammals and endymal metabolism is dominant in non-mammalian vertebrates. 6.3. Multiple transmitters, neuropile, and the limbic system The volume-current, neuropile, transmission cocktail view of Poznanski is intro- duced in Sec. 5. It suggests that selected regions of the limbic system might exhibit consciousness depending on the protoconscious nature of the various transmitter- receptor pairs. This implicates the catecholamines, as major candidates, and could involve their molecular configurational geometry. Refer to Candidate P. Numerous recent experimental results support the idea of multiple cathe- cholamine transmitters and neuroregulatory molecules in association of conscious- ness with arousal and limbic circuits long associated with conscious. These are nicely summarized in [80] and reproduced here as follows. Essential ingredients of access (reportable) awareness are wakefulness, re-entry, attention, and memory and also proto-experiences [80]: For cortical arousal, signals originate in cholin- ergic cells of the brain stem reticular formation peribrachial nuclei: peduncu- lopontine tegmental nucleus and the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus [73]. They project to: (a) midline and intralaminar nuclei of thalamus via dorsal pathway, which arouse various cortical areas utilizing excitatory neurotransmitter gluta- mate; (b) tuberomammillary nuclei of posterior hypothalamus via ventral path- way which arouse various cortical areas utilizing histamine (also hypocretin); and (c) basal forebrain via ventral pathway (more rostrally) which arouse various April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 106 MacGregor & Vimal cortical areas utilizing acetylcholine. Other brain stem nuclei provide seroton- ergic, noradrenergic, and dopaminergic signals that modulate the arousal (sleep and waking) states [65]. Neurotransmitters for attention and/or arousal systems appear to be acetylcholine (ACh), noradrenalin, dopamine, and serotonin. ACh modulates selective attention within the extrastriate and frontoparietal cortices [3]. Frontal cortex as a “source” of attentional modulation appears to have glu- tamate and serotonin [49], ACh [3,66,67], noradrenalin, dopamine, and serotonin [2,3,17,18]. 6.4. Consciousness and neural systems These three systemic models root consciousness in selected transmitter-receptor pairs and suggest the existence of different types of consciousness in humans (differ- ent chemistry, different structures, different functions). They also suggest some levels of consciousness in at least some other vertebrates depending on both the extent of these transmitter systems and the strength of the various activating agents. At a broader inclusive level, conscious overall regulation of behavior at the global systemic level can be seen as driven according to broad governing selection of direc- tives from largely automatically generated neurally-active “flags” which draw atten- tion to threats and items requiring attention [44,45]. 7. Summary of Candidates Central plausible candidate bases of protoconsciousness and activating agents include: general A — views clear, obscure, or outside physics B — molecular chaos model C — raw creative potentiality of the universe string and quantum physics D — string dimensions and existentiality E — quantum mechanical particles, carriers, charges, fields and “minute adjustments” organic molecules F — initial origin of life and some organic molecules, geometric configuration G — molecular metabolism physiological fluxes and fields H — diffusive physiological fluxes and regulation I — volume ionic fluxes, dendritic neuropile, and electrical fields of the brain’s nervous system. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 107 neural circuits J — non-mammalian neural circuits (earliest neural, arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds) K — mammalian: homeothermia and neural circuits L — hominoidea ∼ great apes: coevolution of brain areas with arboreal versatility and hand dexterity M — homo sapien: rich multidimensional brain circuits serving abstracted apprehension and imagination N — neural/neuroglial glutamate and astroglial system O — the endymal neuroglial system. P — multiple transmitter and neuropile model of limbic and arousal systems 8. Discussion: The Two-Factor Approach to Consciousness This section discusses the overall structure and of the two-factor approach, illus- trating that it provides a foundational framework for addressing the localization and nature of consciousness in the human brain. The essential features of the pro- toexperience theory are: protoconsciousness and its sources, carriers, releasers, and hyperelements; and consciousness and its activating agents. Protoconsciousness is a quiescent potential for conscious existentiality. Hyperelements are selected subset(s) of matter which are more especially embued with the property of protoconsciousness. 8.1. Protoconsciousness This paper has identified uncurled dimensions of string theory as possible sources of existential protoconsciousness. In this view, all strings with this dimension so assigned would be carriers of protoconsciousness, and so would all quantum par- ticles associated with such strings. Releasers would be external conditions or acti- vating agents which initiate further the uncurling of the protoconsciousness string dimension. Hyperelements would be subset(s) of matter with significantly uncurled protoconsciousness dimensions, and therefore with significant degrees of protocon- sciousness, or with certain especially fundamental subset(s) of matter significantly further enhanced by activating agents towards or into consciousness. Vimal [80] identifies protoconsciousness as a dual-aspect partner with the funda- mental particles and force carriers of quantum physics, suggesting that all these are carriers of protoconsciousness, but does not give further indications of the source its existentiality. Other representative models of consciousness in neuroscience typically assume an undefined association of consciousness with some neural quantum, molecular, circuit, systemic structure, or process. Such studies typically focus their models on its localization and properties in the brain, leaving aside its source and fundamental nature. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 108 MacGregor & Vimal 8.2. Releasers and the range of consciousness Protoconsciousness as a string dimension would be associated at root with every fun- damental particle and therefore every element of matter in the universe. Yet, science and common human experience are more consistent with the idea that conscious- ness itself is restricted, say to living forms, or to animals, or to some animals. Also, mathematical string physics suggests that the uncurling of higher string dimensions beyond that of three-dimensional space and time is resisted by encirclement by other strings. A number of ideas have been postulated to make use of the smaller range of curled up dimensions. Both these difficulties can be resolved by the assumptions that the expression of consciousness requires further uncurling than this normal restricted state and that this could be induced by certain agents or conditions which could be collectively called releasers. All strings would be carriers of protoconsciousness, but only those with further uncurling of the protoconscious dimension would be labeled as hyperstrings and give rise to hyperparticles and hyperelements. Perhaps some idiosyncrasy in the heterogeneous high energy conditions of the origin of the university produced such further uncurling of some subset(s) of strings, either for some particular particle type or for a fortuitous mix of local particles. Alternatively, perhaps high ambient energy during the earth’s meteoric bombardment uncurled string dimensions in some set(s) of organic (perhaps genetic) molecules. The uncurling of higher string dimensions has been shown to be sensitive to particular multidimensional shapes known as Calabi-Yau shapes. Perhaps certain critically geometrically configured organic molecule(s) produce local force fields with Calabi-Yau resonance sufficient to trigger some uncurling in certain fundamental strings in themselves or neighboring molecules. Such triggering might well require the mediation of quantum-level fields [54–56]. This idea is consistent with the widespread use of molecular shape in living organic physiology and structure. The successful propagation of enhanced protoconsciousness in any such hyperparticle repeatedly through innumerable generations would require exceedingly reliable replication. The most likely, perhaps necessary, site for this would be some location within a given DNA molecule, which would produce the uncurling effect in itself or produce a molecule(s) with the requisite geometrical configuration(s). This could nicely localize protoconsciousness within the zoological tree. The association with a Hox gene, for example, could localize protoconsciousness with Animalia. 8.3. Activating agents and enhancement of consciousness This two-factor theory supposes that consciousness is drawn out of protoconscious- ness and then further progressively enhanced by various conditions and physio- logical activating agents. We have supposed that such activating agents might be particularly associated with high energy levels or perhaps certain geometrical con- figurations. Molecular or physiological fluxes or fields associated particularly with April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 109 metabolism or neural circuits are most likely candidates. Our best estimates of these are indicated in Sec. 7 and discussed in Secs. 3–6. Generally, we might expect lower densities of activation to correspond to weaker, less intense levels of consciousness. Any site of focused neural or metabolic activ- ity might qualify. Synapses and sites of action potentials are elemental units with relatively high density cellular ionic currents. Brain structural features (such as geometric groupings of neurons and dendritic trees) can constrain ionic volume cur- rents causing loci of high concentration. Fluxes and fields occur at cellular, local, regional, or global dimensions. Metabolism is high in humans as homeothermic mammals and especially high in the brain. Metabolic activation by astroglia of synapses on neocortical pyramidal neurons is especially high energy user and is also in a self-regenerating positive feedback loop with pyramidal firing. The neuropile hypothesis reminds one of an intriguing similarity of the densely diffuse reticular integrative networks of the core of the spinal cord to those of the brain stem retic- ular system which latter has been long thought of as the central arousal system of consciousness. This approach is inclusive and multileveled. The primary operative level is that of normal neural operations: neurons, ionic fluxes, neural circuits, glial support. Yet, these depend on molecular processes and are subject to molecular chaos. Also, high energy density enhancement of consciousness is taken to occur at molecular, cellular, and systemic levels. String theory is involved only to the extent that it may provide what seems to be the most, and perhaps only deeply satisfying and non-arbitrary physical grounding of protoconsciousness, especially its existentiality. 8.4. A mechanics of consciousness The two-factor development of protoconsciousness provides the foundations of a mechanics of conscious now totally absent from the field. With this approach, one is able to predict from plausible assumptions the distribution of consciousness and some indication of its intensity in specific selected elements of matter in the brain, as has been explicitly developed in this paper. By this means, speculation on the ground structures of consciousness can be brought into direct comparative association with neuroscientific experimentation, and conversely, experimental results can be used to suggest and refine existing interpretative theory. The use in this work of geometric shape as an activator of protoconsciousness can be seen as an instance of the general reliance on geometric configurations in especially protein chemistry which includes, for example, the recognition of trans- mitters by receptor molecules. This larger context suggests a possible larger but still highly restricted range of other molecules involved in protoconsciousness in support of Poznanski’s earlier suggestion [59,60]. In this, the approach has also led to the suggestion of a strong role for chemical systems as such in brain organiza- tion [86]. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 110 MacGregor & Vimal The configurations of glutamate and glutamate receptor molecules or their fields (as experienced by their constituent fundamental particles, e.g., electrons) could be studied for possible relationships to Calabi-Yau shapes [28] (by computer represen- tations). If these could be found, the approach could be extended to guide searches for additional candidates for protoconsciousness. This work sees neural molecular chaos in transmuted quantum-level fluctuations [41,46]. Also, quantum-level fields may be required to mediate uncurling of strings by Calabi-Yau shape similarity in organic molecules. Quantum effects beyond these do not seem necessary in this theory because of its direct substantive identification of consciousness with essential brain circuits. Thus, autonomy, for example, is easily satisfied in this two-factor theory by substantive association of consciousness with neural circuitry governing integrative and voluntary motor control. 8.5. Glutamate consciousness in the vertebrate nervous system In the glutamate theory, protoconsciousness is substantively identified with either the glutamate molecules or their protein receptor molecules and resides particularly within those constituent fundamental particles whose strings have expanded exis- tentiality dimensions. Neocortical glutamate projections [50] serve the direction and selections of thought, decision, and planning circuits. Corticostriatal glutamate pro- jections (probably involving the subthalamic nuclei) drive the functional integration of voluntary (willful) motor action in the globus pallidus. Protoconsciousness is thus fundamental to these unique individual willful choices which can be seen to be not only practically, but also intrinsically unpredictable and thus freely, by virtue of the transmutating amplification of intrinsic quantum-level uncertainties to normal neural levels as molecular chaos. The two-factor approach to consciousness restricts the occurrence of conscious- ness far more than any single factor does, thereby resolving the otherwise trou- blesome Principle of Plausible Placement. For example, it seems more sound to locate glutamate protoconsciousness in the glutamate protein receptor molecules, as Maggestretti and Pellerin suggest, rather than in glutamate itself, because that would locate consciousness more definitely and narrowly to the neural glutamate system. Glutamate itself is an organic molecule, an amino acid [HOOCCH2 CH2 - CH(NH2 )COOH], and occurs in living organisms rather than inorganic matter [31,42]. Glutathione is a crystalline water soluble peptide of glutamate found in blood and in animal and plant tissue, important in tissue oxidations and the activa- tion of some enzymes. For example, a striking large-scale feeding reaction is triggered in hydra by the glutathione in its prey, presumably by stimulation of neurosensory cells in the hydra [31]. Glutamate is obtained commercially by hydrolysis from wheat gluten and sugar-beet residues. It is then used in its sodium salt form to flavor food. Glutamine is a crystalline relation of glutamate. Protoconsciousness as seen in glutamate receptor protein molecules then would be predicted to occur in vertebrate and perhaps some invertebrate nervous systems April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 111 to the extent and degree to which to those receptor molecules occur and are acti- vated. Both the neocortex and its astroglial system are developed in mammals con- siderably beyond that of reptiles, and are progressively more developed in higher primates. This holds true also for most of the hippocampus and striatum both of which develop in association with neocortex. The corticostriatal tract and subtha- lamic nucleus are nonexistent in reptiles and emerge in mammals. Reptiles have a loosely laminated dorsomedial region of hippocampus homologous to the dendate gyrus in intimate operative relation with the amygdala which is associated with visceral and limbic functions [53]. We would thus expect a relatively strong occurrence of cortical, hippocampal, and striatal glutamate consciousness in most mammals according to the extent and energetic activation of glutamate receptor molecules. We would expect the absence or low level of glutamate consciousness in reptiles and most other non-mammals, except possibly some degree of limbic-related consciousness associated with the dorsomedial hippocampus dependent on the existence and extent of glutamate receptors. We may suppose that lower densities of activation correspond to weaker, less intense levels of consciousness. The theory also predicts increased intensity, variety, and discrimination of consciousness in higher primates and especially humans by further development of the neocortical glutamate system; its continued coevolution with the hippocampus and neostriatum; and by the coevolution of cortical brain circuits with greatly increased behavioral dexterity and versatility, language, three-dimensional vision, and especially imagination as outlined in Sec. 6. 9. Consciousness in Nature and Science Revisited This paper has described the realization of co-evolution and co-development of pro- toconsciousness into consciousness by releasers and activating agents in selected ele- ments of brain circuits which underlie the various functions of consciousness. This approach comprises an explicit mechanics of consciousness which is heretofore absent from the field. This mechanics provides explicit cogent predictions and interpreta- tions regarding the natural localization, intensities, types of consciousness in the elemental multi-leveled physical structures, processes in the brains of humans (and perhaps some related ancestral species), according to the various supposed energetic and geometric releasing agents. This mechanics can be used to help interpret and develop any other theory or model of brain operations. This paper also sees and describes the most satisfying grounding of conscious existentiality in physical theory in its identification with partially uncurled dimen- sions in some fundamental particles and its activation by releasing agents. In Sec. 1, we identified five levels of models which see brain/consciousness as: [a] A substantive identity including existentiality, with existentiality explicitly grounded in physical theory. (e.g., string dimension). This is the favored view of this work. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 112 MacGregor & Vimal [b] A substantive identity which includes an existentiality which is associated with, but not explicitly grounded in, physical theory (e.g., dual-aspect). [c] In science, but ultimately obscure or not yet clarified. [d] In nature, but not in physics or biology as we now know them or can easily adapt them. [e] Essentially metaphysical. This paper is of type [a]. Vimal’s dual-aspect view [80] is of type [b]. These views comprise two levels of extending physical science so as to bring consciousness more fully into the realm of scientific theory as indicated in Sec. 1.2. Almost all models and theories relating to consciousness in neuroscience are implicitly of type [c]. In these models, with or without an empirically-based substan- tive identification of consciousness with some particular set(s) of matter, conscious existentiality could be taken to have some vague relation to matter, such as a “qual- ity of the nervous system” [37]. The conscious operating brain could be described according to its physical activity, say according to a chaos model. Autonomy could be fully accounted for by identifying a substantive relation with brain elements which serve willful choice and direction, or, lacking that, to be allowed for by molecular chaos fueled by transmutation of intrinsic quantum uncertainties. More exotic repre- sentations of autonomy (particularly in the latter case) could include minute adjust- ments of intrinsic quantum uncertainties of state variables of particles in circuits of willful choice and direction. Any of these possibilities could provide a satisfactory descriptive brain science of consciousness. Yet, in any of these, the ultimate exis- tential nature of consciousness and its physical relationships would remain outside physical and biological science as we know these, in the same obscure regions of space and time, the laws of physics and the general creative power of the universe — still a mystery, perhaps an ultimate mystery. Many of these models can be compatibly com- bined, interpreted, or developed along the lines of our formulations and mechanics. Brain/mind relations are considered more fully and systematically by Chalmers [12] who gives a highly useful and more detailed categorization which characterizes brain-mind frameworks into three reductive types and three non-reductive types. In this hyperview, the protoconsciousness approach (types [a] and [b]) appears as a non-reductive material type which would seem to uniquely resolve the long-standing traditional explanatory gap of the physical and existential in brain/mind relations. The string hypothesis (type [a]) suggests a path to understanding the nature of consciousness at the same level as our understanding of matter. Our formulations and many of those indicated in this paragraph suggest new ways to approach the obscurities, mysteries and spiritual dimensions of the subject (types [a]–[e]). Acknowledgments We thank Roman Poznanski and Edwin Lewis for many constructive comments on this subject matter over the last few years. I (Ronald J. MacGregor) am deeply April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 113 indebted to Ram Lakhan Pandey Vimal for originating and bringing to my attention his concept of protoexperience which has inspired the undertaking of this work and his substantive contributions to this paper. Ram Lakhan Pandey Vimal is thankful to Ronald J. MacGregor for his encouragement and support. Ram Lakhan Pandey Vimal is partly supported by funds from the VPRF-Trust and the Vision Research Institute. RLVP has no competing financial interests regarding this work. References [1] Anninos P, Tsagas N, Jacobson JI, Kotini A, The biological effects of magnetic stimu- lation in epileptic patients, Panminerva Med 41:207–215, 1999. [2] Andrews TM, Anderson IM, Information processing in anxiety: A pilot study of the effect of manipulating 5-HT function, J Psychopharmacol 12(2):155–160, 1998. [3] Bentley P, Vuilleumier P, Thiel CM, Driver J, Dolana RJ, Cholinergic enhancement modulates neural correlates of selective attention and emotional processing, NeuroIm- age 20:58–70, 2003. [4] Bergson H, Time and Free Will, Fl Pogson (tr), MacMillan, New York, 1919. [5] Borradaile LA, Potts FA, Eastham LES, Saunders JT, Invertebrata 3rd ed., Cambridge, UK, 1959. [6] Bradford HF, Chemical Neurobiology, WH Freeman, 1986. [7] Bruzzo AA, Vimal RLP, Self: An adaptive pressure arising from self-organization, chaotic dynamics, and neural Darwinsism, J Integr Neurosci 6:541–566, 2007. [8] Cannon WB, The Wisdom of the Body, Norton, 1944. [9] Chalmers DJ, The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory, Oxford Uni- versity Press, New York, 1996. [10] Chalmers DJ, Philosophy of Mind: Classical and Contemporary Readings, Oxford Uni- versity Press, Oxford, UK, 2002. [11] Chalmers DJ, Consciousness and Its place in nature, Oxford University Press, 2002. [12] Chalmers DJ, Consciousness and its place in nature, in Stich S, Warfield F (eds.), Blackwell Guide to Philosophy of Mind, Blackwell, 2003. [13] Chauvet GA, Theoretical Systems in Biology: Hierarchical and Functional Integration, Pergamon, 1996. [14] Churchland PS, Neurophilosophy, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1986. [15] Churchland PS, Brain-Wise: Studies in Neurophilosophy, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2002. [16] Close F, Marten M, Sutton C, The Particle Explosion, Oxford, Cambridge, 1994. [17] Coull JT, Neural correlates of attention and arousal: Insights from electrophysiol- ogy, functional neuroimaging and psychopharmacology, Prog Neurobiol 55(4):343–361, 1998. [18] Dalley JW, Theobald DE, Pereira EA, Li PM, Robbins TW, Specific abnormalities in serotonin release in the prefrontal cortex of isolation-reared rats measured during behavioral performance of a task assessing visuospatial attention and impulsivity, Psy- chopharmacology (Berl) 164(3):329–340, 2002. [19] Davia CJ, Life, catalysis and excitable media: A dynamic systems approach to metabolism and cognition, in Tuszynski J (ed.), The Emerging Physics of Conscious- ness, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany, 2006. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 114 MacGregor & Vimal [20] Delacour J (ed.), The Memory System of the Brain, Imperial College Press, 1994. [21] Edelman G, The Remembered Present: A Biological Theory of Consciousness, Basic Books, 1989. [22] Edelman G, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind, Basic Books, 1992. [23] Edelman G, Wider Than the Sky: Phenomenal Gift of Consciousness, Basic Books, 2004. [24] Emsley J, The Elements, 3rd ed., Oxford, New York, 1998. [25] Faure P, Korn H, Is there chaos in the brain? I. Concepts of non-linear dynamics and methods of investigation, C R Acad Sci SerIII 324:773–793, 2001. [26] Gates SJ, Superstring Theory: The DNA of Reality, The Teaching Co Chantilly, VA, 2006. [27] Gell-Mann M, The Quark and the Jaguar, Henry Holt & Co, New York, 1994. [28] Greene B, The Elegant Universe, W W Norton, New York, 1999. [29] Greene B, The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture or Reality, Alfred Knopf, New York, 2004. [30] Groves PM, A theory of the functional organization of the neostriatum and neostriatal control of voluntary movement, Brain Res 5:109–132, 1983. [31] Guthrie MJ, Anderson JM, General Zoology, John Wiley, New York, 1957. [32] Halpern P, The Great Beyond: Higher Dimensions, Parallel Universes and the Extraor- dinary Search for a Theory of Everything, John Wiley, New York, 2004. [33] Hameroff SR, Quantum coherence in microtubules: A neural basis for emergent con- sciousness? J Consc Studies 1:98–118, 1994. [34] Hecht S, Shaer S, Pirenne MH, Energy quanta and vision, J Opt Soc Am 38:196–208, 1942. [35] Humphrey N, The privatization of sensation, in Huber L, Heyes C (eds.), The Evolution of Cognition, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, pp. 241–252, 2000. [36] Jack JJB, Tsien RW, Noble D, Electric Current Flow in Excitable Cells, Clarendon Press, 1975. [37] Koch C, The Quest for Consciousness, Roberts and Co Hauppauge, New York, 2004. [38] Korn H, Faure P, Is there chaos in the brain? II. Experimental evidence and related models, C R Acad Sci SerIII, 2003. [39] Krauss LM, Hiding in the Mirror: The Mysterious Allure of Extra Dimensions, from Plato to String Theory and Beyond, Viking Books, New York, 2005. [40] Lederman L, The God Particle, Dell Publishing, New York, 1994. [41] Lewis ER, MacGregor RJ, On indeterminism, chaos, and small number particle systems in the brain, J Integr Neurosci 5:223–247, 2006. [42] Loewy AG, Siekevitz P, Cell Structure and Function, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1963. [43] MacGregor RJ, Theoretical Mechanics of Biological Neural Networks, Academic Press, Boston, 1993. [44] MacGregor RJ, A functional theory of consciousness and its relations in brain, J Integr Neurosci 3.3:23–29, 2004. [45] MacGregor RJ, On the Contexts of Things Human — An Integrative View of Con- sciousness, Brain, and Freedom of Will, World Scientific Pub Co, Singapore, 2006. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 Consciousness and the Structure of Matter 115 [46] MacGregor RJ, Quantum mechanics and brain uncertainty, J Integr Neurosci 5:373– 380, 2006. [47] Magistretti, Pellerin PJL, Cellular mechanisms of brain energy metabolism and their relevance to functional brain imaging, Phil Trans R Soc B 354:1155–1163, 1999. [48] McCann UD, Mertl M, Eligulashvili V, Ricaurte GA, Cognitive performance in (+/−) 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) users: A controlled study, Psychopharmacology (Berl) 143(4):417–425, 1999. [49] Mirjana C, Baviera M, Invernizzi RW, Balducci C, The serotonin 5-HT2A receptors antagonist M100907 prevents impairment in attentional performance by NMDA recep- tor blockade in the rat prefrontal cortex, Neuropsychopharmacology 29(9):1637–1647, 2004. [50] Noback C, Strominger NL, Demarest RJ, The Human Nervous System, 4th ed., LEA & FEBIGER, Philadelphia, 1991. [51] Northoff G, Heinzel A, de Greck M, Bermpohl F, Dobrowolny H, Panksepp J, Self- referential processing in our brain — A meta-analysis of imaging studies on the self, Neuroimage 31(1):440–457, 2006. [52] Nunez PL, Electrical Fields of the Brain, Oxford Univ Press, New York, 1981. [53] Oerster R, The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Tri- umph of Modern Physics, Pi Press, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2005. [54] Penrose R, Shadows of the Mind: A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness, Oxford Univ Press, Oxford, UK, 1994. [55] Penrose R, The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe, Alfred A, Knopf, New York, 2006. [56] Pessa E, Vitiello G, Quantum noise entanglement and chaos in the quantum mechanical field theory of mind/brain states, Mind and Matter 1:59–79, 1999. [57] Pollack S, Particle Physics for Non-Physicists, The Teaching Co Chantilly, VA, 2003. [58] Popper KR, Lindahl BIB, Arhem A, A discussion of the mind-brain problem, Theor Med 14:167–180, 1993. [59] Poznanski RR, Introduction to integrative neuroscience, in Poznanski RR (ed.), Bio- physical Neural Networks: Foundations of Integrative Neuroscience, Mary Ann Liebert, New York, 2001. [60] Poznanski RR, Towards an integrative theory of cognition, J Integr Neurosci 1:145– 156, 2002. [61] Poznanski RR, Riera J, fMRI models of dendritic and astrocytic networks, J Integr Neurosci 5:273–326, 2006. [62] Randall L, Warped Passages: Unraveling the Mysteries of the Universe’s Hidden Dimensions, Harper Collins, New York, 2005. [63] Ramon-Moliner E, The Conscious States of Matter, Vantage Press, New York, 1994. [64] Sarnat HB, Netsky MG, Evolution of the Nervous System, Oxford, New York, 1974. [65] Saper CB, Diffuse cortical projection systems: Anatomical organization and role in cortical function, in Mountcastle VB, Plum F (eds.), Handbook of Physiology, Vol V: The Nervous System, American Physiological Society, Bethesda, MD, pp. 169–210, 1987. [66] Sarter M, Bruno JP, Abnormal regulation of corticopetal cholinergic neurons and impaired information processing in neuropsychiatric disorders, Trends Neurosci 22(2):67–74, 1999. April 1, 2008 13:33 WSPC/179-JIN 00173 116 MacGregor & Vimal [67] Sarter M, Bruno JP, Cortical cholinergic inputs mediating arousal, attentional process- ing and dreaming: Differential afferent regulation of the basal forebrain by telencephalic and brainstem afferents, Neuroscience 95(4):933–952, 1999. [68] Scheibel ME, Scheibel AB, Structural substrates for integrative patterns in the brain stem reticular core, in Jasper HH et al. (eds.), Reticular Formation of the Brain, Little, Brown and Co, Boston, pp. 31–66, 1958. [69] Searle JR, The Rediscovery of the Mind, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1992. [70] Searle JR, The mystery of consciousness, I & II, New York Review of Books, Nov 2 & 16, 1995. [71] Searle JR, Consciousness and the philosophers, New York Review of Books, Mar 6, 1997. [72] Searle JR, Consciousness, Ann Rev Neurosci 2:557–578, 2000. [73] Siegel J, Brain mechanisms that control sleep and waking, Naturwissenschaften 91(8):355–365, 2004. [74] Sommerfeld A, Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics, Academic Press, New York, 1956. [75] Stam CJ, Nonlinear dynamic analysis of EEG and MEG: Review of an emerging field, Clin Neurophysiol 116:2266–2301, 2005. [76] Taddei-Ferretti C, Musio C, Neuronal Bases and Psychological Aspects of Conscious- ness, Imperial College Press, 1999. [77] Taylor C, Sources of the Self, Cambridge, 1989. [78] Trefil JS, Hazen R, The Sciences: An Integrated Approach, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1997. [79] Tudge C, The Variety of Life, Oxford, UK, 2000. [80] Vimal RLP, Proto-experiences and subjective experiences: Classical and quantum con- cepts, J Integr Neurosci 7:49–73, 2008. [81] Wilson CJ, Chang HT, Kitai ST, Origins of postsynaptic potentials evoked in identified rat neostraital neurons by stimulation in substantia nigra, Exp Brain Res 8:157–162, 1982. [82] Woese CR, Bacterial evolution, Microbiol Rev 51:221–271, 1987. [83] Woese CR, There must be a prokaryote somewhere: Microbiology’s search for itself, Microbiol Rev 58:1–9, 1994. [84] Yew DT, Kwong WH, Yu MC, Basic Neuroanatomy, Imperial College Press, 1997. [85] Young JZ, Life of the Vertebrates, 2nd ed., Oxford, UK, 1962. [86] Yusuf HKM, Understanding the Brain and Its Development: A Chemical Approach, Imperial College Press, UK, 1992.