Ancient DNA (aDNA)

Th e e v olutio n o f biomolecula r techniques , a s th e PCR ; ha s impr o v e d th e qualit y o f genetic analysis in f ields like forensic science and biomedicine. To these days, it is possible to obtain DNA  from  extinguished  species;  called  ancient  DNA  (aDNA).  The  analysis  of  aDNA  has been really helpful in  anthropology and forensic sciences. Some important historical cases have been elucidated through these techniques  as the identif ication of remains of Christopher Columbus  and  the  Romanov  dynasty.  The  main  aim  of  this  paper  is  to  introduce  in  detail ancient  DNA,  its applications  and  the  main  advantages  and  disadvantages  of working  with this type of DNA.

Since colonial times, attempts at racial classification and naming the diversity and potpourri of India’s population have remained controversial. However, the postgenomic era has created an impetus within the life sciences to study human biological diversity. The ongoing GenomeIndia project (GIP) is a significant development in this direction. The GIP aims to create a catalog of genetic variations in Indians and construct a reference haplotype structure for Indians. But what epistemological assumptions and concepts inform the GIP? And how do such epistemic conceptualizations influence the discourse on identity politics? By focusing on empirical research practices, I highlight here how the GIP relies on taken for granted epistemologies for characterizing human differences. I posit that while population genetics and medical genomics continue to be guided by the normative logic of genetic nationalism, in the case of India, the logic remains closely tied to the diffuse politics of identity and caste. As such, the GIP’s notions of a reference haplotype or catalog of genetic diversity
cannot fully dissociate science epistemologies from politics.

The article examines the entanglements between population genetics of India and its deep-rooted political implications by analyzing the construction of the categories “Ancestral North Indian” (ANI) and “Ancestral South Indian” (ASI). Beginning with the historical backdrop of the Aryan migration theory and its connection to racial frameworks, I explore how recent (a)DNA research has rekindled debates about ancestral origins, the caste system, and inequality in India. Scrutinizing the crafting of ANI and ASI categories by the US-based geneticist David Reich and his collaborators, I discuss these scientists’ attempts to disentangle genetics from politics and show how they, however, inadvertently align with Hindu nationalist narratives. Examining the limitations and implications of this nationalization of ancestral categories, the article reflects on the inescapable politicization of such terms and their exclusionary effects. I argue that the persistent challenges posed by the legacies of race within the sciences of human diversity cannot be resolved solely through categorical rebranding or by efforts to isolate science from politics. The conclusion argues for a more nuanced and reflexive understanding of science-politics entanglements and gestures toward the importance of community involvement to better navigate the ethical and political complexities of population genetics.

This study examines claims that ancient Egyptians were biologically and culturally identical to Tropical West African populations ancestral to modern African Americans. Through systematic analysis of ancient DNA from over one hundred Egyptian individuals, cranial and dental morphology, isotopic geochemistry, archaeological evidence, linguistic analysis, and admixture dating, this research demonstrates that ancient Egyptians formed a distinct North African lineage with primary genetic and cultural affinities to Levantine and Near Eastern populations. Ancient Egyptian genomes from the Old Kingdom (2855-2570 BCE) through Roman period (30 BCE-400 CE) show 85-92 percent Near Eastern and North African ancestry with 0-15 percent sub-Saharan African ancestry. Critically, even this limited sub-Saharan component is predominantly East African (Horn of Africa/Upper Nile Valley) rather than West African in origin, representing either indigenous Nile Valley populations or limited gene flow from immediately adjacent regions.

Fluctuations in the size of taurine cattle (Bos taurus) have been regularly demonstrated using archaeozoological data from across time and space in Europe, and have been linked to cultural, social and economic changes, but little is known about whether phenotypic change is accompanied by changes in genetic diversity. Here, we performed PCR-typed analysis of the partial mtDNA d-loop fragments of 99 cattle from the Neolithic to Early Medieval times from a number of different sites across Switzerland, combining newly presented data with previously published data (n = 20). We found that most cattle included (84) were members of the common European macro-haplogroup T3. However, cattle belonging to the haplogroups T1, T2, Q and P were identified as early as the Neolithic period, before 2690 cal. BCE. The highest diversity was found in the Neolithic period, during the 1st century CE and during the 7th–8th centuries CE. Bottleneck phases with low genetic diversity were detected during the L...

Sturgeons, an iconic group of large fishes inhabiting marine and freshwater ecosystems, have historically had significant economic and cultural value, particularly prized for their meat and roe (caviar). Furthermore, sturgeons play a vital ecological role as mesopredators of prey fish and invertebrates. In the Danube basin, the European (Acipenser sturio) and fringebarbel or ship sturgeon (Acipenser nudiventris) are locally extinct, while beluga (Huso huso), Russian (Acipenser gueldenstaedtii), stellate (Acipenser stellatus) and sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus) sturgeon have significantly declined since the nineteenth century owing to overfishing, habitat loss and pollution. Archaeological evidence suggests that sturgeon exploitation along the Danube began as early as 11.6 thousand years before the present. This study explores the genetic landscape of Danube sturgeons over the past approximately 10 000 years using ancient DNA (aDNA) from archaeological specimens. Despite challenges posed by limited sample size, phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial genomes and the D-loop reveal high genetic diversity within beluga, Russian and ship sturgeon populations. In addition, shared haplotypes between modern and historical specimens of both beluga and Russian sturgeons suggest genetic continuity within each species over time. This study provides, to our knowledge, the first high-coverage sequencing of ancient sturgeon mitogenomes establishing the foundation for future aDNA research.

Background: In-solution hybridization enrichment of genetic markers is a method of choice in paleogenomic studies, where the DNA of interest is generally heavily fragmented and contaminated with environmental DNA, and where the retrieval of genetic data comparable between individuals is challenging. Here, we benchmark the commercial "Twist Ancient DNA" reagent from Twist Biosciences using sequencing libraries from ancient human samples of diverse demographic origin with low to high endogenous DNA content (0.1-44%). For each library, we tested one and two rounds of enrichment and assessed performance compared to deep shotgun sequencing. Results: We find that the "Twist Ancient DNA" assay provides robust enrichment of approximately 1.2M target SNPs without introducing allelic bias that may interfere with downstream population genetics analyses. Additionally, we show that pooling up to 4 sequencing libraries and performing two rounds of enrichment is both reliable and cost-effective for libraries with less than 27% endogenous DNA content. Above 38% endogenous content, a maximum of one round of enrichment is recommended for cost-effectiveness and to preserve library complexity. Conclusions: In conclusion, we provide researchers in the field of human paleogenomics with a comprehensive understanding of the strengths and limitations of different sequencing and enrichment strategies, and our results offer practical guidance for optimizing experimental protocols.

The brown bear (Ursus arctos L.) is an iconic megafauna species that survived the Late Pleistocene extinction. Historically, this large carnivore has been widespread throughout Europe, but human activities, such as hunting and habitat alteration, have caused its extirpation disappearance in many regions. Although brown bear populations are stable in some countries, others are on the brink of extinction. Brown bears in Europe are divided into ten isolated populations, three of which are present in the Balkans, with possible contact zones in Serbia. The main aim of this project is to reconstruct the evolutionary history of this species in the Balkans over the last 50,000 years using advanced biomolecular methods. Preliminary results for Holocene brown bears from Serbia have shown high mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) diversity. We detected not only all known European mtDNA lineages but also a new lineage that has not yet been described. This suggests that the genetic diversity was much higher in the past. In this project, we plan to analyse the osteological remains of brown bears excavated from various palaeontological and archaeological sites in Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Italy, dating from the Late Pleistocene to the Middle Ages. Modern samples from the Dinaric-Pindos population collected in recent years by non-invasive sampling will also be included. This project incorporates the newest methods of genomics, paleogenomics, and isotope biochemistry (stable isotopes and radiocarbon dating). Genome-wide data will enable temporal and spatial analyses to provide information on demography, ancestry, past admixture events and migrations, relationships between individuals and populations, and changes in effective population size. Stable isotope analysis of bone collagen carbon and nitrogen will be used to reconstruct the diet. The chronology of the bone samples will be confirmed by direct AMS radiocarbon dating of bone collagen.

The prevailing highest-order modeling of early human history, for example the Out-of-Africa paradigm and the plant/animal domestication narratives, have proven both productive and constraining. As the volume of high-fidelity data in genetics, archaeology, and ecology grows, the existing models increasingly struggle to incorporate anomalous or nonconforming findings, which are accumulating at an accelerated rate, largely due to advances in technology and methods. While researchers like David Reich have called for a new synthesis/model, we suggest an alternative: a model-free, first-principles approach inspired by open-source technological innovation and agile design principles. This method invites a decentralized set of parallel, clump-building" forms of inquiry that resists premature consensus and enable the iterative assembly of meaningful fragments of data/research into larger, more cohesive meta-insights. By embracing uncertainty and allowing for partial solutions, while laying the scaffolding of the whole, we can increase the velocity and breadth of discovery without the ideological rigidity and structural constraints of current frameworks. This paper outlines the epistemological limitations of dominant models, offers illustrative examples of neglected evidence, and proposes a practical, distributed strategy for future research.

Internal and external bony tissues from diverse mammalian taxa are one of the primary animal raw materials exploited for technical and symbolic purposes by Eurasian Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers. Identifying the source species used for osseous raw material is critical to gain insights into these populations’ behaviour, technology, and subsistence. The study of osseous tools has advanced in the last few years by combining archaeological and biomolecular methods. Ancient genomics opens many new analytical opportunities. Ancient DNA (aDNA) can provide a wealth of information about the animal sources of these objects. Unfortunately, aDNA analyses often involve destructive sampling. Here, we develop and apply a minimally-invasive aDNA sampling method for an assemblage of 42 prehistoric hunting weapons and tools from various Eurasian archaeological sites. We evaluated the impact of our approach on the specimens visually, microscopically and through Micro-CT scans. The surface impact...

Internal and external bony tissues from diverse mammalian taxa are one of the primary animal raw materials exploited for technical and symbolic purposes by Eurasian Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers. Identifying the source species used for osseous raw material is critical to gain insights into these populations’ behaviour, technology, and subsistence. The study of osseous tools has advanced in the last few years by combining archaeological and biomolecular methods. Ancient genomics opens many new analytical opportunities. Ancient DNA (aDNA) can provide a wealth of information about the animal sources of these objects. Unfortunately, aDNA analyses often involve destructive sampling. Here, we develop and apply a minimally-invasive aDNA sampling method for an assemblage of 42 prehistoric hunting weapons and tools from various Eurasian archaeological sites. We evaluated the impact of our approach on the specimens visually, microscopically and through Micro-CT scans. The surface impact...

A recent study from Central Europe has changed our perception of the cat's domestication history. The authors discuss how this has led to the development of an interdisciplinary project combining palaeogenetics, zooarchaeology and radiocarbon dating, with the aim of providing insight into the domestic cat's expansion beyond the Mediterranean.

Internal and external bony tissues from diverse mammalian taxa are one of the primary animal raw materials exploited for technical and symbolic purposes by Eurasian Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers. Identifying the source species used for osseous raw material is critical to gain insights into these populations’ behaviour, technology, and subsistence. The study of osseous tools has advanced in the last few years by combining archaeological and biomolecular methods. Ancient genomics opens many new analytical opportunities. Ancient DNA (aDNA) can provide a wealth of information about the animal sources of these objects. Unfortunately, aDNA analyses often involve destructive sampling. Here, we develop and apply a minimally-invasive aDNA sampling method for an assemblage of 42 prehistoric hunting weapons and tools from various Eurasian archaeological sites. We evaluated the impact of our approach on the specimens visually, microscopically and through Micro-CT scans. The surface impact...

Fluctuations in the size of taurine cattle (Bos taurus) have been regularly demonstrated using archaeozoological data from across time and space in Europe, and have been linked to cultural, social and economic changes, but little is known about whether phenotypic change is accompanied by changes in genetic diversity. Here, we performed PCR-typed analysis of the partial mtDNA d-loop fragments of 99 cattle from the Neolithic to Early Medieval times from a number of different sites across Switzerland, combining newly presented data with previously published data (n = 20). We found that most cattle included (84) were members of the common European macro-haplogroup T3. However, cattle belonging to the haplogroups T1, T2, Q and P were identified as early as the Neolithic period, before 2690 cal. BCE. The highest diversity was found in the Neolithic period, during the 1st century CE and during the 7th–8th centuries CE. Bottleneck phases with low genetic diversity were detected during the L...

Th e e v olutio n o f biomolecula r techniques , a s th e PCR ; ha s impr o v e d th e qualit y o f genetic analysis in f ields like forensic science and biomedicine. To these days, it is possible to obtain DNA  from  extinguished  species;  called  ancient  DNA  (aDNA).  The  analysis  of  aDNA  has been really helpful in  anthropology and forensic sciences. Some important historical cases have been elucidated through these techniques  as the identif ication of remains of Christopher Columbus  and  the  Romanov  dynasty.  The  main  aim  of  this  paper  is  to  introduce  in  detail ancient  DNA,  its applications  and  the  main  advantages  and  disadvantages  of working  with this type of DNA.

Traditionally, the harsh climatic conditions during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) period have been considered the cause of local extinctions and major faunal reorganizations that took place at the end of the Pleistocene. Recent studies have shown, however, that many of these events were associated with abrupt climate changes during the so-called Late Glacial and the Pleistocene/Holocene transition. Here we used ancient DNA to investigate the impact of those changes on common vole (Microtus arvalis) populations in Europe. The common vole is a temperate rodent species widespread in Europe. The genetic diversity of modern populations and the fossil record suggests that the species may have survived cold episodes, like Last Glacial Maximum, not only in the traditional Mediterranean glacial refugia, but also at higher latitudes in so-called cryptic northern refugia located in Central France, the northern Alps as well as the Carpathians. However, the course of post glacial recolonization and the impact of the Late Glacial and Early Holocene climate changes on the evolutionary history of the common vole 3 remains unclear. To address this issue we analysed mtDNA cytochrome b sequences from more than a hundred common vole specimens from paleontological sites scattered across Europe. Our data suggests that populations from the European mid-and high latitudes suffered a local population extinction and contractions as a result of Late Glacial and Early Holocene climate and environmental changes. The recolonization of earlier abandoned areas took place in the Middle to Late Holocene. In contrast at low latitudes in Northern Spain there was a continuity of vole population. This indicates different responses of common vole populations to Late Glacial climate and environmental changes across Europe and corroborates the hypothesis that abrupt changes, like those associated with Younger Dryas and the Pleistocene/Holocene transition, had a significant impact on populations at the mid-and high latitudes of Europe.

Internal and external bony tissues from diverse mammalian taxa are one of the primary animal raw materials exploited for technical and symbolic purposes by Eurasian Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers. Identifying the source species used for osseous raw material is critical to gain insights into these populations’ behaviour, technology, and subsistence. The study of osseous tools has advanced in the last few years by combining archaeological and biomolecular methods. Ancient genomics opens many new analytical opportunities. Ancient DNA (aDNA) can provide a wealth of information about the animal sources of these objects. Unfortunately, aDNA analyses often involve destructive sampling. Here, we develop and apply a minimally-invasive aDNA sampling method for an assemblage of 42 prehistoric hunting weapons and tools from various Eurasian archaeological sites. We evaluated the impact of our approach on the specimens visually, microscopically and through Micro-CT scans. The surface impact...

Maintaining genomic diversity in goat populations in different parts of Iran is essential for breeding programs, increasing production, survival, resistance to diseases, and various environmental changing conditions. The aim of the present study was to determine the sequence of HVR1 from the mitochondrial genome of Iranian native goats including Sistani, Pakistani, Black and Lorry ecotypes (each of 4 heads), examine the probable variation in these populations, and plotting their phylogen relationship in comparison with some animal species. Total DNA extraction was performed using phenol-chloroform method. The extracted DNA was used as template for proliferation of HVR1 region of mitochondrial genome was used and the obtained bands were sequenced by Sanger method. The nucleotide sequences with 30 sequences from the same region of the mitochondrial genome related to other animal species derived from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) were used for genetic analysis and phylogenetic tree mapping. The average of haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity among species were 0.994 and 0.12891, and, in the ecotypes were 1 and 0.09299, respectively. The numerical value of the replacement rate of dn/ds for the studied ecotypes and other species was calculated at 1.17 and 1.12, respectively, which indicates a positive selection in the process of evolution of this gene. The results of phylogenic tree of nucleotide sequence of HVR1 region were estimated from two major branches and 7 subspaces. Among the studied species, goat ecotypes were similar to sheep species. The genetic and phylogenic analysis of the studied species indicates the distinction and evolutionary path of each species and the HVR1 region can lead to the proper grouping of the species and sub-species that are split from them.

The study of human genetic markers provides invaluable insights into our ancestral origins and migration patterns. Among these markers, the Y-DNA passed from father to son acts as a relay, enabling the development of a uniparental marker that can be traced across generations. In this paper, we focus on the reconstruction of the traveled path of a small Y-DNA haplogroup, specifically I2-L38. By analyzing ancient DNA from the I2-S2555 (also known as I2-S2599) Epigravettian precursor within the Villabruna genetic cluster, we aim to shed light on the history and evolution of this lineage. Through the integration of archaeogenetic, archaeological, and historical approaches, we piece together the story of I2-L38. This analysis reveals the emergence of northern and southern Mesolithic I2-S2555 lineages, their encounter with Neolithic farmers, and the subsequent development of I2-L38 in central Europe during the Bronze Age. The paper also explores the spread of I2-L38 into Celtic and Germanic populations during the Iron Age, shedding light on the genetic contributions of this lineage to various cultures. While gaps in our knowledge persist, the research presented here offers a steppingstone for further exploration into the history of the nearly extinct I2-S2555 lines.

Th e e v olutio n o f biomolecula r techniques , a s th e PCR ; ha s impr o v e d th e qualit y o f genetic analysis in f ields like forensic science and biomedicine. To these days, it is possible to obtain DNA  from  extinguished  species;  called  ancient  DNA  (aDNA).  The  analysis  of  aDNA  has been really helpful in  anthropology and forensic sciences. Some important historical cases have been elucidated through these techniques  as the identif ication of remains of Christopher Columbus  and  the  Romanov  dynasty.  The  main  aim  of  this  paper  is  to  introduce  in  detail ancient  DNA,  its applications  and  the  main  advantages  and  disadvantages  of working  with this type of DNA.

Rohrlach, A.B., Rivollat, M., de-Miguel-Ibáñez, P., Nordfors, U., Liira, A.-M., Teixeira, J., Roca-Rada, X., Armendáriz-Martija, J., Boyadzhiev, K., Boyadzhiev, Y., Llamas, B., Tiliakou, A., Mötsch, A., Tuke, J., Prevedorou, E.-A., Polychronakou-Sgouritsa, P., Buikstra, J., Onkamo, P., Stockhammer, P. W., Heyne, H. O., Lemke, J. R., Risch, R., Schiffels, S., Krause, J., Haak, W. & Prüfer, K. 2024. Cases of Trisomy 21 and Trisomy 18 among Historic and Prehistoric Individuals discovered from Ancient DNA. Nature Communications, 1294 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-45438-1

We are a group of archaeologists, anthropologists, curators and geneticists representing diverse global communities and 31 countries. All of us met in a virtual workshop dedicated to ethics in ancient DNA research held in November 2020. There was widespread agreement that globally applicable ethical guidelines are needed, but that recent recommendations grounded in discussion about research on human remains from North America are not always generalizable worldwide. Here we propose the following globally applicable guidelines, taking into consideration diverse contexts. These hold that: (1) researchers must ensure that all regulations were followed in the places where they work and from which the human remains derived; (2) researchers must prepare a detailed plan prior to beginning any study; (3)

A recent study from Central Europe has changed our perception of the cat's domestication history. The authors discuss how this has led to the development of an interdisciplinary project combining palaeogenetics, zooarchaeology and radiocarbon dating, with the aim of providing insight into the domestic cat's expansion beyond the Mediterranean.

Traditionally, the harsh climatic conditions during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) period have been considered the cause of local extinctions and major faunal reorganizations that took place at the end of the Pleistocene. Recent studies have shown, however, that many of these events were associated with abrupt climate changes during the so-called Late Glacial and the Pleistocene/Holocene transition. Here we used ancient DNA to investigate the impact of those changes on common vole (Microtus arvalis) populations in Europe. The common vole is a temperate rodent species widespread in Europe. The genetic diversity of modern populations and the fossil record suggests that the species may have survived cold episodes, like Last Glacial Maximum, not only in the traditional Mediterranean glacial refugia, but also at higher latitudes in so-called cryptic northern refugia located in Central France, the northern Alps as well as the Carpathians. However, the course of post glacial recolonization and the impact of the Late Glacial and Early Holocene climate changes on the evolutionary history of the common vole 3 remains unclear. To address this issue we analysed mtDNA cytochrome b sequences from more than a hundred common vole specimens from paleontological sites scattered across Europe. Our data suggests that populations from the European mid-and high latitudes suffered a local population extinction and contractions as a result of Late Glacial and Early Holocene climate and environmental changes. The recolonization of earlier abandoned areas took place in the Middle to Late Holocene. In contrast at low latitudes in Northern Spain there was a continuity of vole population. This indicates different responses of common vole populations to Late Glacial climate and environmental changes across Europe and corroborates the hypothesis that abrupt changes, like those associated with Younger Dryas and the Pleistocene/Holocene transition, had a significant impact on populations at the mid-and high latitudes of Europe.

We are a group of archaeologists, anthropologists, curators and geneticists representing diverse global communities and 31 countries. All of us met in a virtual workshop dedicated to ethics in ancient DNA research held in November 2020. There was widespread agreement that globally applicable ethical guidelines are needed, but that recent recommendations grounded in discussion about research on human remains from North America are not always generalizable worldwide. Here we propose the following globally applicable guidelines, taking into consideration diverse contexts. These hold that: (1) researchers must ensure that all regulations were followed in the places where they work and from which the human remains derived; (2) researchers must prepare a detailed plan prior to beginning any study; (3)

BACA et al. 1 | INTRODUC TI ON The climatic and environmental changes during the last glacial period (ca. 115-11.7 ka ago) had a great impact on the evolutionary histories of most species. It has been suggested that species have responded to those changes according to their individual characteristics and there is no basis for considering them as complexes responding to climate and environmental changes in the same man

Internal and external bony tissues from diverse mammalian taxa are one of the primary animal raw materials exploited for technical and symbolic purposes by Eurasian Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers. Identifying the source species used for osseous raw material is critical to gain insights into these populations’ behaviour, technology, and subsistence. The study of osseous tools has advanced in the last few years by combining archaeological and biomolecular methods. Ancient genomics opens many new analytical opportunities. Ancient DNA (aDNA) can provide a wealth of information about the animal sources of these objects. Unfortunately, aDNA analyses often involve destructive sampling. Here, we develop and apply a minimally-invasive aDNA sampling method for an assemblage of 42 prehistoric hunting weapons and tools from various Eurasian archaeological sites. We evaluated the impact of our approach on the specimens visually, microscopically and through Micro-CT scans. The surface impact...

Internal and external bony tissues from diverse mammalian taxa are one of the primary animal raw materials exploited for technical and symbolic purposes by Eurasian Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers. Identifying the source species used for osseous raw material is critical to gain insights into these populations’ behaviour, technology, and subsistence. The study of osseous tools has advanced in the last few years by combining archaeological and biomolecular methods. Ancient genomics opens many new analytical opportunities. Ancient DNA (aDNA) can provide a wealth of information about the animal sources of these objects. Unfortunately, aDNA analyses often involve destructive sampling. Here, we develop and apply a minimally-invasive aDNA sampling method for an assemblage of 42 prehistoric hunting weapons and tools from various Eurasian archaeological sites. We evaluated the impact of our approach on the specimens visually, microscopically and through Micro-CT scans. The surface impact...

Fluctuations in the size of taurine cattle (Bos taurus) have been regularly demonstrated using archaeozoological data from across time and space in Europe, and have been linked to cultural, social and economic changes, but little is known about whether phenotypic change is accompanied by changes in genetic diversity. Here, we performed PCR-typed analysis of the partial mtDNA d-loop fragments of 99 cattle from the Neolithic to Early Medieval times from a number of different sites across Switzerland, combining newly presented data with previously published data (n = 20). We found that most cattle included (84) were members of the common European macro-haplogroup T3. However, cattle belonging to the haplogroups T1, T2, Q and P were identified as early as the Neolithic period, before 2690 cal. BCE. The highest diversity was found in the Neolithic period, during the 1st century CE and during the 7th–8th centuries CE. Bottleneck phases with low genetic diversity were detected during the L...