Burned Bone

Traditionally, the Balearic so-called 'quicklime burials' of the Iron Age have been considered to be inhumations in quicklime. The general appearance of the bones, however, resembles more closely that of cremated bones. Laboratory tests reveal that the observed features of the bones from these burials, including cracks, thumbnail fractures and warping, cannot be explained by an inhumation in quicklime. The d 13 C value, Fourier transform infrared spectra, SF values and the low carbon content of the apatite moreover indicate a thermal manipulation of the bones. The 14 C content is depleted with regard to the accepted archaeological age of the sample, which can best be explained by carbon exchange between bio-apatite and fossil CO 2 released during the heating of limestone. This implies that the Balearic 'quicklime burials' must be interpreted as an elaborate cremation practice in presence of limestone.

Traditionally, the Balearic so-called 'quicklime burials' of the Iron Age have been considered to be inhumations in quicklime. The general appearance of the bones, however, resembles more closely that of cremated bones. Laboratory tests reveal that the observed features of the bones from these burials, including cracks, thumbnail fractures and warping, cannot be explained by an inhumation in quicklime. The d 13 C value, Fourier transform infrared spectra, SF values and the low carbon content of the apatite moreover indicate a thermal manipulation of the bones. The 14 C content is depleted with regard to the accepted archaeological age of the sample, which can best be explained by carbon exchange between bio-apatite and fossil CO 2 released during the heating of limestone. This implies that the Balearic 'quicklime burials' must be interpreted as an elaborate cremation practice in presence of limestone.

In view of the difficulties in extracting quantitative information from burned bone, we suggest a new and accurate method of determining the temperature and duration of burning of human remains in forensic contexts. Application of the powder X-ray diffraction approach to a sample of human bone and teeth allowed their microstructural behavior, as a function of temperature (200-1000°C) and duration of burning (0, 18, 36, and 60 min), to be predicted. The experimental results from the 57 human bone sections and 12 molar teeth determined that the growth of hydroxylapatite crystallites is a direct and predictable function of the applied temperature, which follows a nonlinear logistic relationship. This will allow the forensic investigator to acquire useful information about the equilibrium temperature brought about by the burning process and to suggest a reasonable duration of fire exposure.

Bones submitted to heat experience structural and chromatic modifications. In particular, heat-induced bone warping and thumbnail fractures have been linked to the burning of fleshed and green bones -where the soft tissues have been removed from the bones soon after deathin contrast to dry bones. Those have been suggested as indicators of the state of the individual before being burned thus allowing inferences about the funerary behaviour of archaeological populations. A large sample of 61 skeletons submitted to cremation has been examined for the presence of both of these heat-induced features. Although uncommon, bone warping and thumbnail fractures were present in some of the skeletons demonstrating that its presence is not restricted to the burning of non-dried bones as generally believed. Rather than being an indicator of the presence of bones with soft tissues, bone warping seems to be more of an indicator of the preservation of collagen-apatite links which can be maintained on dry bones with low collagen deterioration. In addition, our results also do not confirm thumbnail fractures as an exclusive sign of the burning of bones with soft tissues. As a result, these heat-induced changes should be used with caution when trying to infer about the preburning state of an individual.

Bones submitted to heat experience structural and chromatic modifications. In particular, heat-induced bone warping and thumbnail fractures have been linked to the burning of fleshed and green bones -where the soft tissues have been removed from the bones soon after deathin contrast to dry bones. Those have been suggested as indicators of the state of the individual before being burned thus allowing inferences about the funerary behaviour of archaeological populations. A large sample of 61 skeletons submitted to cremation has been examined for the presence of both of these heat-induced features. Although uncommon, bone warping and thumbnail fractures were present in some of the skeletons demonstrating that its presence is not restricted to the burning of non-dried bones as generally believed. Rather than being an indicator of the presence of bones with soft tissues, bone warping seems to be more of an indicator of the preservation of collagen-apatite links which can be maintained on dry bones with low collagen deterioration. In addition, our results also do not confirm thumbnail fractures as an exclusive sign of the burning of bones with soft tissues. As a result, these heat-induced changes should be used with caution when trying to infer about the preburning state of an individual.

The essential feature of post-traumatic stress disorder is the development of characteristic symptoms following exposure to a traumatic stressor involving direct personal experience of an event that involves threat of death oactual r serious injury, or other threat to one's physical integrity; or witnessing an event that involves death, injury, or a threat to physical integrity of another person; or learning about unexpected or violent death, serious harm, or threat of death or injury experienced by a family member or other close associate (DSM IV). The aim of this work is to assess the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among the burned victims and its predicting factors. Methods: Patients were recruited at the Burns Department in the Ibn Rushd University Hospital during the period between 1 October 1998 and 1 October 1999. All patients were psychiatrically interviewed and answered a questionnaire. The diagnosis of PTSD was done according to DSM IV criteria. Results were analyzed on Epi info software. Results: Sixty patients gave their consent to participate in this study. The 23.3% met criteria for PTSD and 55% for major depressive disorder. In short, PTSD was related to age, explosion of gas containers for cooking purposes, depression and low social functioning. Otherwise, no relationship was found between PTSD and gender, length of hospitalization or severity of burn. Conclusion: Post-traumatic stress disorder remains a poorly known entity by clinicians and under-diagnosed in burned patients. Considering the frequency of this pathology, an anti-depressant treatment and a psychotherapeutic relationship are necessary to improve the health and the quality of life of these patients.

Bones submitted to heat experience structural and chromatic modifications. In particular, heat-induced bone warping and thumbnail fractures have been linked to the burning of fleshed and green bones-where the soft tissues have been removed from the bones soon after deathin contrast to dry bones. Those have been suggested as indicators of the state of the individual before being burned thus allowing inferences about the funerary behaviour of archaeological populations. A large sample of 61 skeletons submitted to cremation has been examined for the presence of both of these heat-induced features. Although uncommon, bone warping and thumbnail fractures were present in some of the skeletons demonstrating that its presence is not restricted to the burning of non-dried bones as generally believed. Rather than being an indicator of the presence of bones with soft tissues, bone warping seems to be more of an indicator of the preservation of collagen-apatite links which can be maintained on dry bones with low collagen deterioration. In addition, our results also do not confirm thumbnail fractures as an exclusive sign of the burning of bones with soft tissues. As a result, these heat-induced changes should be used with caution when trying to infer about the preburning state of an individual.

La repartition des ossements sur l' epave de l'Aber Wrac' h en une zone de decoupe et une zone depotoir nous a permis de conclure que ces vestiges provenaient bien de la cuisine du bordo Les especes identiftees sont, pour la plupart, domestiques (mouton, chevre,porc, bovin) et parmi celles-ci it faut souligner la faible representation du pore et la dominance des petits ruminants.llfaut egalement noter fa presence du rat et surtout du lapin.

Traditionally, the Balearic so-called 'quicklime burials' of the Iron Age have been considered to be inhumations in quicklime. The general appearance of the bones, however, resembles more closely that of cremated bones. Laboratory tests reveal that the observed features of the bones from these burials, including cracks, thumbnail fractures and warping, cannot be explained by an inhumation in quicklime. The d 13 C value, Fourier transform infrared spectra, SF values and the low carbon content of the apatite moreover indicate a thermal manipulation of the bones. The 14 C content is depleted with regard to the accepted archaeological age of the sample, which can best be explained by carbon exchange between bio-apatite and fossil CO 2 released during the heating of limestone. This implies that the Balearic 'quicklime burials' must be interpreted as an elaborate cremation practice in presence of limestone.

To elucidate the psychosocial correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the burn victims of Pakistan. METHODS: A total of 200 burn victims were included in the sample. The standardized measures were used to assess the symptom levels of PTSD. The detailed demographic profile of the patients was also received for gleaning the demographics' association with PTSD symptoms. The screening of PTSD symptoms for further clinical management had also been catered through this data collection strategy. For analysis SPSS version 22.0 was employed.

Resume La repartition des ossements sur l' epave de l'Aber Wrac' h en une zone de decoupe et une zone depotoir nous a permis de conclure que ces vestiges provenaient bien de la cuisine du bordo Les especes identiftees sont, pour la plupart, domestiques (mouton, chevre,porc, bovin) et parmi celles-ci it faut souligner la faible representation du pore et la dominance des petits ruminants.llfaut egalement noter fa presence du rat et surtout du lapin. Summary An Aspect of Daily Life on Board : Preliminary Study of Bone Remainsfrom the Aber Wrac'h Wreck (Finistere, XVth c.) :

The essential feature of post-traumatic stress disorder is the development of characteristic symptoms following exposure to a traumatic stressor involving direct personal experience of an event that involves threat of death oactual r serious injury, or other threat to one's physical integrity; or witnessing an event that involves death, injury, or a threat to physical integrity of another person; or learning about unexpected or violent death, serious harm, or threat of death or injury experienced by a family member or other close associate (DSM IV). The aim of this work is to assess the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among the burned victims and its predicting factors. Methods: Patients were recruited at the Burns Department in the Ibn Rushd University Hospital during the period between 1 October 1998 and 1 October 1999. All patients were psychiatrically interviewed and answered a questionnaire. The diagnosis of PTSD was done according to DSM IV criteria. Results were analyzed on Epi info software. Results: Sixty patients gave their consent to participate in this study. The 23.3% met criteria for PTSD and 55% for major depressive disorder. In short, PTSD was related to age, explosion of gas containers for cooking purposes, depression and low social functioning. Otherwise, no relationship was found between PTSD and gender, length of hospitalization or severity of burn. Conclusion: Post-traumatic stress disorder remains a poorly known entity by clinicians and under-diagnosed in burned patients. Considering the frequency of this pathology, an anti-depressant treatment and a psychotherapeutic relationship are necessary to improve the health and the quality of life of these patients.

Bas-Rhin), il est à l'heure actuelle un des seuls témoins fiables attribués au Paléolithique moyen dans la région, permettant ainsi de documenter une zone assez méconnue pour la Préhistoire ancienne. La très bonne conservation des vestiges s'y retrouvant ainsi que son importante stratigraphie en font potentiellement un site de référence pour les analyses environnementales et comportementales au Paléolithique moyen dans la région. Néanmoins, les études étant en cours, ce sont les premiers résultats qui sont présentés dans cet article. Les occupations sont situées au débouché de la vallée la Bruche, au pied de la falaise du Felsbourg. Véritable attrait de par la vue imprenable sur la plaine d'Alsace qu'il expose, cet emplacement topographique a été vraisemblablement le témoin de nombreuses occupations répétées. L'ensemble de la séquence se rapporte au Paléolithique moyen. Si les niveaux supérieurs (couches 1 à 4) pourraient être le reflet de colluvionnements d'occupations sur une des terrasses supérieures qui se seraient démantelées, les couches 5, 7A, 7C1, 7C2 et 7D semblent en revanche en place, et se sont vraisemblablement déposées sous abri, ce dernier étant affecté par différentes phases d'effondrement. Les couches 8, 9 et 10, plus anciennes, appréhendées uniquement en sondage, révèlent des occupations sur un replat d'environ un mètre en contre-bas. Le substrat n'ayant pas été atteint, il est possible que la séquence soit encore plus importante. Les grands mammifères (mammouth laineux, cheval des steppes, bison des steppes et rhinocéros laineux) et la microfaune reflètent une même ambiance environnementale relativement froide de type steppe sur toute la séquence. Ces données, couplées aux dates OSL obtenues pour le moment, placent les occupations de Mutzig au Début Glaciaire du Weichselien (MIS 5, vers 90000 BP). Les vestiges archéologiques sont très nombreux au sein des différentes couches. L'industrie lithique est assez homogène sur toute la séquence. Les artisans ont exploité différents types de matériaux locaux et les méthodes d'exploitation sont assez simples, les tailleurs ayant mis à profit des convexités naturelles, révélant une phase de sélection des supports assez drastique. Peu d'outils retouchés sont recensés, mais les nombreux éclats de retouche récoltés attestent d'une circulation de ces outils. D'un point de vue typotechnologique, l'industrie se démarque de ses homologues subcontemporains outre-Vosges et outre-Rhin. Au moins quatre niveaux archéologiques (couches 5, 7A, 7C1 et 7D) révèlent la présence d'éléments brûlés, avec pour l'un d'entre eux (couche 7C1) la présence d'une structure de combustion (couche 7C1). Le site de Mutzig paraît lié à une activité de chasse importante puisque les restes fauniques sont non seulement très nombreux, mais présentent également de fréquentes traces anthropiques (stries et fractures volontaires). Néanmoins, la question de l'acquisition des très grands herbivores reste posée. Enfin, si l'ensemble de la séquence est assez homogène, de légères différences tendent néanmoins à apparaître. Certaines couches se distinguent notamment par la représentation de certains taxons fauniques (mammouth dominant dans la couche 7A, à l'inverse de la couche 7C1 pour laquelle le renne est majoritaire) ainsi que par la présence de charbons de bois ou d'os brûlés dans les structures de combustion, peut-être à relier à des couverts forestiers distincts. La poursuite de la fouille devra permettre à terme de reconstituer l'environnement des Néandertaliens d'Alsace et de documenter leurs modes de vie.

To elucidate the psychosocial correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the burn victims of Pakistan. METHODS: A total of 200 burn victims were included in the sample. The standardized measures were used to assess the symptom levels of PTSD. The detailed demographic profile of the patients was also received for gleaning the demographics' association with PTSD symptoms. The screening of PTSD symptoms for further clinical management had also been catered through this data collection strategy. For analysis SPSS version 22.0 was employed.

During the Middle Neolithic the Aland archipelago consisted of a group of small islands. The distance to the nearest shore of the mainland was over 100 km. The archipel- ago was occupied by the Pitted Ware people. This paper presents the bird bones found on the site of Jettbole I (c. 3400-2800 cal BC) in Jomala, one of the largest Pitted Ware base- camps on the islands. The economy was based on marine resources (mainly seals), and fishing and fowling were an important constituent part. My aim is to draw a picture of fowling at the Jettbole I based on the avian remains found at the site. The total number of bird bone fragments identified at the site is over 1200 and the number of different bird spe- cies is at least 15. The Eider Somateria mollissima was the most important bird species hunted, followed by the Velvet Scoter Melanitta fusca. The bone material from Jettbole I is the largest and the best preserved bone sample found in Stone Age Finland.

To elucidate the psychosocial correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the burn victims of Pakistan. METHODS: A total of 200 burn victims were included in the sample. The standardized measures were used to assess the symptom levels of PTSD. The detailed demographic profile of the patients was also received for gleaning the demographics' association with PTSD symptoms. The screening of PTSD symptoms for further clinical management had also been catered through this data collection strategy. For analysis SPSS version 22.0 was employed.

Resume La repartition des ossements sur l' epave de l'Aber Wrac' h en une zone de decoupe et une zone depotoir nous a permis de conclure que ces vestiges provenaient bien de la cuisine du bordo Les especes identiftees sont, pour la plupart, domestiques (mouton, chevre,porc, bovin) et parmi celles-ci it faut souligner la faible representation du pore et la dominance des petits ruminants.llfaut egalement noter fa presence du rat et surtout du lapin. Summary An Aspect of Daily Life on Board : Preliminary Study of Bone Remainsfrom the Aber Wrac'h Wreck (Finistere, XVth c.) :

Excavations carried out in Tomb IX of the hypogeic necropolis of 'Sa Figu', near the village of Ittiri (Sassari, Italy), supplied burnt human bone remains and pottery unambiguously referred to the Early Bronze Age (characterised by the local culture of 'Bonnannaro'). Besides the anthropological study, we have investigated and evaluated the possibility of a funerary cremation practice in Sardinian prehistory , a subject that has previously not been considered from a scientific point of view. Making use of a calibration procedure based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) line-broadening analysis, related to the microstructural properties, it was possible to estimate the combustion temperature to which the fragmented bones were subjected. It was found that the studied bones reached temperatures varying from 4008C up to a maximum of 8508C. This spread of values suggested inhomogeneous combustion of the bones, which seems compatible with funerary cremation practices.

The analysis of burned remains is a highly complex process, and a better insight can be gained with advanced technologies. The main goal of this paper is to apply X-ray diffraction, partially supported by infrared attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy to determine changes in burned human bones and teeth in terms of mineral phase transformations. Samples of 36 bones and 12 teeth were heated at 1050°C and afterwards subjected to XRD and ATR-IR. The crystallinity index was calculated for every sample. A quantitative evaluation of phases was documented by using the Rietveld approach. In addition to bioapatite, the following mineralogical phases were found in the bone: β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) (Ca3(PO4)2), lime (CaO), portlandite (Ca(OH)2), calcite (CaCO3), and buchwaldite (NaCaPO4). In the case of bone, besides bioapatite, only the first two mineralogical phases and magnesium oxide were present. We also observed that the formation of β-TCP affects the phosphate peaks used for ...

Burnt bone remains are found from many Palaeolithic sites but there may be several explanations for their presence. Laboratory experiments were set up in order to define the combustible properties of bones and to characterize the bone remains resulting from combustion. On the basis of these results, three indices relating to the frequency of the cancellous portions, the intensity of fragmentation and the intensity of combustion are proposed to describe and interpret the burned bone assemblages. The multivariate analysis carried out on a sample of Paleolithic archaeological assemblages makes it possible to differentiate three main categories (fuel, non-fuel and fuel/cleaning) which serve as the basis for a statistical model which we then apply to the study of other sites for which we propose an interpretation of the burned assemblages.

Burnt bone remains are found from many Palaeolithic sites but there may be several explanations for their presence. Laboratory experiments were set up in order to define the combustible properties of bones and to characterize the bone remains resulting from combustion. On the basis of these results, three indices relating to the frequency of the cancellous portions, the intensity of fragmentation and the intensity of combustion are proposed to describe and interpret the burned bone assemblages. The multivariate analysis carried out on a sample of Paleolithic archaeological assemblages makes it possible to differentiate three main categories (fuel, non-fuel and fuel/cleaning) which serve as the basis for a statistical model which we then apply to the study of other sites for which we propose an interpretation of the burned assemblages.

The analysis of burned remains is a highly complex process, and a better insight can be gained with advanced technologies. The main goal of this paper is to apply X-ray diffraction, partially supported by infrared attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy to determine changes in burned human bones and teeth in terms of mineral phase transformations. Samples of 36 bones and 12 teeth were heated at 1050°C and afterwards subjected to XRD and ATR-IR. The crystallinity index was calculated for every sample. A quantitative evaluation of phases was documented by using the Rietveld approach. In addition to bioapatite, the following mineralogical phases were found in the bone: β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) (Ca3(PO4)2), lime (CaO), portlandite (Ca(OH)2), calcite (CaCO3), and buchwaldite (NaCaPO4). In the case of bone, besides bioapatite, only the first two mineralogical phases and magnesium oxide were present. We also observed that the formation of β-TCP affects the phosphate peaks used for ...

national study on prevalence of mental disorders: a community-based epidemiological study. Objective: The main objective of this study was to assess the prevalence of common mental disorders in the Moroccan general population. Method: On a systematic representative randomized sample, the Moroccan Arabic version of the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) was used to assess the prevalence of mood, anxiety, substance, and alcohol abuse disorders. Results: Among 5498 subjects interviewed, 40.1% had at least one current mental disorder. Current major depressive disorder was the most common (26.5%), and at least one anxiety disorder was found in 37% of the sample. Mental disorders were more frequent among female, urban, divorced, and unemployed subjects. Conclusion: Mental disorders are common in the Moroccan general population, particularly mood and anxiety disorders.

Liang Lemdubu is located in the western interior of Pulau Kobroor in an area of karstic limestone (Fig. 9.1). This large, doubleentranced cave was formed when an ancient subterranean river cut a passage through the limestone. It runs in length for 30m, is up to eight metres wide and has an average height of three metres (Figs 9.2, 9.3). To reach it one has to boat to the upper reaches of Sungai Papakulah, followed by a two hour walk inland through rainforest.

The possibility of determining the human or animal origin of bones from the lattice parameters of their inorganic bioapatite phase, when subjected to a high temperature treatment using the powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique, has been explored on a wide number of specimens. Forty-two animal bones were treated in a furnace at 1100 C for 36 min and compared to 53 cremated human bones from a range of ancient necropolises. The X-ray diffraction patterns of bioapatite were simulated using both monoclinic P21/b and hexagonal P63/m structures to verify any occurrence of phase transformation and any difference in the lattice parameters due to the model. It was determined that the differences between the a-axis and c-axis of the monoclinic and hexagonal lattice were unimportant. Some outlying values were revealed to be caused by the presence of chlorine ions diffused into the apatite structure increasing its average unit cell values. Nevertheless, our results clearly show that in terms of lattice parameters the variability of human specimens are completely overlapped by the non-human variability making the use of XRD in order to distinguish animal from human bones questionable.

Saint-Antoine à Vitrolles, locus 2 (Hautes-Alpes) : premiers résultats des fouilles de sauvetage urgent (1995-1996) d'un gisement épigravettien In: Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française. 1999, tome 96, N. 2. pp. 191-202. Résumé Résumé Le site de Saint-Antoine à Vitrolles (Hautes-Alpes) a fait l'objet de deux campagnes de fouille de sauvetage en 1995 et 1996. Elles ont mis en évidence l'existence de trois locus, culturellement homogènes, attribués à l'Épigravettien évolué sur la base de l'industrie lithique. La seconde campagne de fouille a concerné le locus 2, une nappe de vestiges mu It is t ratifiée, d'une extension d'environ 120 m2. Les résultats issus des études post-fouilles ont permis de proposer une occupation automnale d'un site spécialisé dans l'acquisition et le traitement des carcasses de cervidés. Parmi les résultats les plus significatifs, il faut souligner la découverte de structures évidentes (un aire de combustion et un amas osseux) et la première mise en évidence du débitage à la pierre tendre en contexte épigravettien.

We review the different factors affecting significantly mineral structure and composition of bones. Particularly, it is assessed that micro-nano-structural and chemical properties of skeleton bones change drastically during burning; the micro-and nano-structural changes attending those phases manifest themselves, amongst others, in observable alterations to the bones colour, morphology, microstructure, mechanical strength and crystallinity. Intense changes involving the structure and chemical composition of bones also occur during the fossilization process. Bioapatite material is contaminated by an heavy fluorination process which, on a long-time scale reduces sensibly the volume of the original unit cell, mainly the a-axis of the Manuscript Click here to download Manuscript Piga et al., 2016_R1.doc Click here to view linked References

ABSTRACT Excavations carried out in Tomb IX of the hypogeic necropolis of 'Sa Figu', near the village of Ittiri (Sassari, Italy), supplied burnt human bone remains and pottery unambiguously referred to the Early Bronze Age (characterised by the local culture of 'Bonnannaro'). ...

This document is the fourth in a series of guides aimed at promoting best practice in different aspects of archaeological science, produced by members of the Science and Technology in Archaeology and Culture Research Center (STARC) of The Cyprus Institute. The current document was largely developed in the context of two projects: People in Motion and Promised. The implementation of People in Motion involved the laboratory study of a large commingled and partially burned skeletal assemblage from Byzantine Amathus, Cyprus, which came to light in the context
of excavations led by the Cypriot Department of Antiquities. Osteological work on this assemblage was co-funded by the European Regional Development Fund and the Republic of Cyprus through the Research and Innovation Foundation (EXCELLENCE/1216/0023). In addition, Promised aims at promoting archaeological sciences in the Eastern Mediterranean, with funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 811068. The study of burned skeletal remains is particularly challenging due to the extensive alteration of the bones, manifesting as warping, discoloration, shrinkage, and fracturing. These macroscopic changes express underlying structural and chemical alterations. As a result, the application of traditional osteological methods (morphological, metric, chemical, molecular, histological and others) is largely inhibited or should be extremely cautious. Nonetheless, the study of burned skeletal assemblages can offer unique insights to funerary practices and technologies, as well as the manipulation of dead bodies. In line with the above, the aim of this guide is to cover various aspects of the study of burned skeletal assemblages. It should be seen as a supplement to the ‘Basic guidelines for the excavation and study of human skeletal remains; STARC Guide no. 1 ’ and the ‘Excavation and study of commingled human skeletal remains; STARC Guide no. 2’. The current guide is meant to serve only as a general outline and the described field and lab-based methods should be modified depending on the context and characteristics of each assemblage under study. A number of excellent volumes have been published in the past years, compiling experimental and case studies on the retrieval and examination of burned skeletal remains in archaeological and forensic contexts (Fairgrieve 2008; Schmidt and Symes 2015; Symes et al. 2012; Thompson 2015). Much of the information presented here has been drawn from these resources, as well as from other publications and the author’s professional experience. References are given throughout the current document but the aim is by no means to provide an exhaustive account of the literature. This document is an open resource and it is anticipated to be updated at regular intervals. I would greatly appreciate any feedback and recommendations for future improvement.