Conservation Outcomes

Protected areas (PAs) are at the forefront of conservation efforts, and yet despite considerable progress towards the global target of having 17% of the world's land area within protected areas by 2020, biodiversity continues to decline. The discrepancy between increasing PA coverage and negative biodiversity trends has resulted in renewed efforts to enhance PA effectiveness. The global conservation community has conducted thousands of assessments of protected area management effectiveness (PAME), and interest in the use of these data to help measure the conservation impact of PA management interventions is high. Here, we summarize the status of PAME assessment, review the published evidence for a link between PAME assessment results and the conservation impacts of PAs, and discuss the limitations and future use of PAME data in measuring the impact of PA management interventions on conservation outcomes. We conclude that PAME data, while designed as a tool for local adaptive man...

The purpose of this 3-article dissertation is to better understand how volunteer
experience in place-based and data-rich programs influences their science learning, motivations,
and data quality.This mixed methods evaluation consisted of three distinct phases: 1) survey
assessment of the impact that participation in Blue Thumb has on individual learning outcomes,
such as behavior and stewardship, interest, and motivation, 2) interviews to relate motivation for
volunteerism to place-based attachments and 3) a mixed methods analysis relating data quality to
participant perception of skill and self-efficacy. There were not significant differences between
new and experienced volunteer behaviors and interests, but qualitative results yielded context to
results. Volunteers’ motivations were significantly different and driven by various categories of
attachments to the places being monitored. Lastly, skill and self-efficacy did not correlate to data
quality. This research suggests that mixed methods are more informative than survey items alone,
as they provide context to quantitative survey scores. Future research will benefit from the
inclusion of more robust and inclusive evaluation tools, with consideration to volunteers’
individual experiences and rich narratives.

Payments for environmental services (PES) are often viewed as a way to simultaneously improve conservation outcomes and the wellbeing of rural households who receive the payments. However, evidence for such win-win outcomes has been elusive. We add to the growing literature on conservation program impacts by using primary household survey data to evaluate the socioeconomic impacts of participation in Costa Rica's PES program. Despite the substantial cash transfers to voluntary participants in this program, we do not detect any evidence of impacts on their wealth or self-reported well-being using a quasiexperimental design. These results are consistent with the common claim that voluntary PES do not harm participants, but they beg the question of why landowners participate if they do not benefit. Landowners in our sample voluntarily renewed their contracts after five years in the program and thus are unlikely to have underestimated their costs of participation. They apparently did not invest additional income from the program in farm inputs such as cattle or hired labor, since both decreased as a result of participation. Nor do we find evidence that participation encouraged moves off-farm. Instead, semi-structured interviews suggest that participants joined the program to secure their property rights and contribute to the public good of forest conservation. Thus, in order to understand the social impacts of PES, we need to look beyond simple economic rationales and material outcomes.

Citizen science has proven to be a valuable tool for biodiversity conservation. However, to maximize the conservation benefits of citizen science programs, researchers and practitioners would gain from a better understanding of project volunteers and what drives them to participate. We examined the diverse motivations of volunteers (n = 3041) participating in Audubon's Christmas Bird Count, one of the world's oldest ecological monitoring citizen (or community) science projects. Principal axis factor analysis along a 16-item scale revealed six distinct intrinsic and extrinsic motivational constructs: science and conservation, outdoor recreation and discovery, commitment and tradition, social interaction, classic birding, and personal accomplishment. Most participants reported multiple motivations, but 40% indicated contribution to science and conservation was their primary reason for initially engaging with the project. As project participation continued, science and conservation-related motives became even more important (with 55% listing as primary continuing motivation). Regression analyses showed motivational orientations varied by socio-demographic attributes and levels/type of project participation. For example, social interaction and tradition were more important to aspiring project leaders than casual observers. Results highlight insights into deepening project engagement and recruiting and retaining citizen scientists. Adapted and applied across different contexts, our instrument and motivational constructs could help to facilitate volunteer management and enhance citizen science's capacity to advance biodiversity conservation goals.

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Zoos and aquariums are increasingly incorporating conservation education into their mission statements and visitor experiences to address global biodiversity loss. To advance knowledge and practice in the field, research is being conducted to evaluate the effect of zoo conservation-education experiences on visitor psychosocial outcomes (e.g., knowledge, attitude, emotions, motivations, behavior). Following recent discussions among scholars and practitioners concerning logistical and methodological challenges that likely undermine the conclusions of such research, we identified and reviewed the methods and reporting practices in peer-reviewed articles published in English from May 1998 to June 2016 that focused on adult visitor samples (47 articles, 48 studies). We examined elements of internal, external, construct, and statistical conclusion validity. Methodological quality of quantitative methods and reporting practices was determined using the Effective Public Health Practice Project Quality Assessment Tool. Each study was coded as either strong (no weak ratings), moderate (1 weak rating), or weak (ࣙ2 weak ratings). The quantitative methods of 83.3% of studies were weak. The remaining 16.7% had methods of moderate quality. Using an existing checklist, we also assessed the quality and rigor of qualitative methods and reporting practices and found that some aspects of these methods were reported more comprehensively than others. For example, 69.6% of articles discussed methods for identifying key themes from the data, whereas only 34.8% reported how data verification was performed. We suggest increased application of intensive longitudinal methods (e.g., daily diary) to strengthen self-reported data, experimental and repeated-measures designs, and mixed-methods approaches. Our findings and recommendations could strengthen and guide the research and evaluation agenda for the field and ultimately enhance the contribution zoos make to global biodiversity conservation.

Protected areas (PAs) are at the forefront of conservation efforts, and yet despite considerable progress towards the global target of having 17% of the world's land area within protected areas by 2020, biodiversity continues to decline. The discrepancy between increasing PA coverage and negative biodiversity trends has resulted in renewed efforts to enhance PA effectiveness. The global conservation community has conducted thousands of assessments of protected area management effectiveness (PAME), and interest in the use of these data to help measure the conservation impact of PA management interventions is high. Here, we summarize the status of PAME assessment, review the published evidence for a link between PAME assessment results and the conservation impacts of PAs, and discuss the limitations and future use of PAME data in measuring the impact of PA management interventions on conservation outcomes. We conclude that PAME data, while designed as a tool for local adaptive man...

Protected areas (PAs) are at the forefront of conservation efforts, and yet despite considerable progress towards the global target of having 17% of the world's land area within protected areas by 2020, biodiversity continues to decline. The discrepancy between increasing PA coverage and negative biodiversity trends has resulted in renewed efforts to enhance PA effectiveness. The global conservation community has conducted thousands of assessments of protected area management effectiveness (PAME), and interest in the use of these data to help measure the conservation impact of PA management interventions is high. Here, we summarize the status of PAME assessment, review the published evidence for a link between PAME assessment results and the conservation impacts of PAs, and discuss the limitations and future use of PAME data in measuring the impact of PA management interventions on conservation outcomes. We conclude that PAME data, while designed as a tool for local adaptive man...

IntroductionA fundamental component of ecotourism is resource conservation. Oftentimes, that resource is wildlife. Within the wildlife-centric ecotourism experience, tourists' encounters are most often with individual animals, or a small subset of the population (i.e., not the species as a whole). However, most conservation efforts are focused at the species level. This article explores the relationship between tourists' ability to identify individual animals and conservation outcomes.MethodsData were obtained from 3,853 online surveys from viewers of the Katmai National Park and Preserve webcams (bearcams).ResultsThe majority of respondents (70%) indicated they could identify individual bears. Respondents who could identify individual bears had significantly higher scores for conservation outcomes (i.e., awareness, behavioral intention, and emotional connection). Furthermore, identifying an individual bear as a favorite yielded significantly higher scores for emotional conn...

Introduction: A fundamental component of ecotourism is resource conservation. Oftentimes, that resource is wildlife. Within the wildlife-centric ecotourism experience, tourists' encounters are most often with individual animals, or a small subset of the population (i.e., not the species as a whole). However, most conservation e orts are focused at the species level. This article explores the relationship between tourists' ability to identify individual animals and conservation outcomes. Methods: Data were obtained from , online surveys from viewers of the Katmai National Park and Preserve webcams (bearcams). Results: The majority of respondents (%) indicated they could identify individual bears. Respondents who could identify individual bears had significantly higher scores for conservation outcomes (i.e., awareness, behavioral intention, and emotional connection). Furthermore, identifying an individual bear as a favorite yielded significantly higher scores for emotional connectivity and support for conservation programs. Discussion: Thus, the ability to identify individual animals, when viewing wildlife, can improve conservation outcomes. Practitioners could consider incorporating strategies to improve tourists' identification skills as a method to cultivating conservation outcomes.

As 21st-century zoos continue to grow into their roles as conservation centers they are challenged to find meaningful ways to engage their publics and contribute to conservation. Flagship species address both issues, as outcomes include increased conservation awareness and action. Flagship species, however, have historically been charismatic megafauna. Today, conservationists are challenged to connect the public with lesser-known species. This article investigated the influence of charismatic characteristics on visitors' connection to a species, and pro-conservation behavioral intentions. Data were obtained from 250 visitors to the Melbourne Zoo and analyzed with structural equation modeling. A species' conservation status (β = .37) and relatability (β = .33) directly influenced visitors' emotional connection and indirectly influenced behavioral intentions. Results suggested wider arrays of species are capable of producing flagship outcomes. Based on these results, zoos could recruit a greater assemblage of species to serve as flagships for conservation initiatives.

Interpretation has been recognized as a useful tool in managing visitor behavior in nature-based tourism areas. This study explores a multiple assessment approach to identify the strengths and weaknesses of site-based interpretation in influencing multidimensional aspects of attitudes and behavioral intentions toward local environmental issues. Visitors to the Lulworth coastal area in England were studied using on-site questionnaire survey data. The results of the research highlight that the effectiveness of interpretation varied in relation to a number of different aspects of responsible environmental behavior and local conservation issues. The findings also reveal that it fostered visitors’ awareness of and their support for management policies but its impacts were limited to site-specific responsible behavior related in this case to geological and environmental conservation.

Protected areas (PAs) are at the forefront of conservation efforts, and yet despite considerable progress towards the global target of having 17% of the world's land area within protected areas by 2020, biodiversity continues to decline. The discrepancy between increasing PA coverage and negative biodiversity trends has resulted in renewed efforts to enhance PA effectiveness. The global conservation community has conducted thousands of assessments of protected area management effectiveness (PAME), and interest in the use of these data to help measure the conservation impact of PA management interventions is high. Here, we summarize the status of PAME assessment, review the published evidence for a link between PAME assessment results and the conservation impacts of PAs, and discuss the limitations and future use of PAME data in measuring the impact of PA management interventions on conservation outcomes. We conclude that PAME data, while designed as a tool for local adaptive man...

Monitoring and evaluation is an essential stage of conservation implementation, offering a wide variety of benefits including the ability to engage in informed adaptive management. Understanding the relationship among actions, outputs, and outcomes can inform on factors acting to facilitate or hinder conservation success. Assessing these relationships is particularly important for projects with both social and ecological objectives given that they likely operate through a more complex theory of change. Performance measurement studies that assess both ecological and social variables can offer an informative and cost-effective evaluation method for such projects, but simultaneous social-ecological evaluation is rarely implemented. Using the case study of the Marine Turtle Conservation Project in North Cyprus, we aimed to demonstrate how social-ecological performance measure protocols can aid sea turtle conservation efforts in adaptive management through informing on connections among project actions, outputs, and outcomes. Our study employed a mixed-methods performance measurement approach integrating three distinct data sources: 31 project publications, the project's long-term dataset on sea turtle ecology, and 26 semi-structured interviews with key informants including residents, fishermen, local business owners, and project staff. The results indicated that the project has generated a wide range of social, economic, and ecological outcomes. Two primary connections among social and ecological factors emerged: 1) bridging the research-implementation gap through directing research into policy action and 2) enhanced operational capacity and achievement of ecological outcomes through extensively engaging with the community and generating local economic benefits. Insufficient government enforcement and a lack of widespread behavioural change on turtle nesting beaches were primary barriers. This study highlights the benefits of multidisciplinary conservation and demonstrates the insight that can be gained from rapid, social-ecological performance measurement approaches. Channelling such information back into conservation through adaptive management can serve to both increase the achievement of ecological goals and improve human wellbeing.

A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of an investment in the protection of malleefowl and associated native vegetation in the Lachlan Catchment's central-west yielded a benefitcost ratio of 1.4. The CBA is based on project expenditures over the past four years coupled with benefit estimates from a recent Choice Modelling study in the Lachlan Catchment. The project targets the protection of malleefowl on private land which has not yet been surveyed but where the species is known to be present. The CBA is subject to significant uncertainty due to a lack of available data. Nonetheless, sensitivity analysis indicates that the BCR is consistently larger than unity, if marginal in some cases. This suggests that the project is a worthwhile investment at this early stage. Furthermore, greater gains may be achieved by addressing the numerous threats facing the species and its habitat. The increased cost of such an investment may be more than offset by the gains in benefits due to relatively conservative assumptions associated with the benefit calculations in the BCA.

As fundamental as emotions may be in our experiences with wildlife, very little research addresses this topic. The following paper provides insight into the emotional responses of conservation volunteers participating on conservation holidays through four ethnographic case-studies. Six common emotional responses were identified: anguish, disappointment, frustration, exhilaration, awe and compassion. These emotional highs and lows shaped the volunteer experience, as the realities of wildlife conservation in South Africa upset the ...

As 21st-century zoos continue to grow into their roles as conservation centers they are challenged to find meaningful ways to engage their publics and contribute to conservation. Flagship species address both issues, as outcomes include increased conservation awareness and action. Flagship species, however, have historically been charismatic megafauna. Today, conservationists are challenged to connect the public with lesser-known species. This article investigated the influence of charismatic characteristics on visitors' connection to a species, and pro-conservation behavioral intentions. Data were obtained from 250 visitors to the Melbourne Zoo and analyzed with structural equation modeling. A species' conservation status (β = .37) and relatability (β = .33) directly influenced visitors' emotional connection and indirectly influenced behavioral intentions. Results suggested wider arrays of species are capable of producing flagship outcomes. Based on these results, zoos could recruit a greater assemblage of species to serve as flagships for conservation initiatives.

Although nature-based tourism is often promoted as benefiting local destinations through income generation, employment, and direct conservation support, it is also believed to influence tourists' environmentally friendly attitudes, knowledge, and ultimately their behavior. Yet, few studies have empirically documented these outcomes, and those that do are inconsistent in the variables measured and the time frame analyzed. This paper examines the empirical research on nature-based tourism's ability to foster long-term stewardship behavior among travelers by conducting a systematic review of peer-reviewed tourism research published between 1995 and 2013. This search, focused on literature addressing changes in tourists' environmentally related knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and actual behaviors, yielded just 30 empirical studies. Outcomes related to new environmental knowledge were commonly reported in these studies, but findings related to environmental attitudes and behaviors were inconsistent. Few studies measured environmental behavior directly, and fewer still include longitudinal assessments of persistent changes in attitudes or behaviors. We suggest potential future areas for research as well as programmatic strategies that may facilitate favorable outcomes from naturebased tourism, particularly those related to tourists' knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. Key areas include understanding visitors' prior experiences and background, designing and delivering more effective interpretive messages, and using social media.

This work is dedicated to my wife Lucy and our three children, Faith, Ethan, and Zoe. This would not have been possible without your unending love, support, and patience. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank several people for their help in bringing this project to completion. Dr. Robert Powell, committee chair, provided support and guidance, and challenged me to be a better scholar. Drs. Jeffrey Hallo, Brett Wright, and William Bowerman brought great insights and practicalities to the process and design. I am grateful for all of the encouragement and patience from all of these individuals. For service above and beyond the call of duty, I would like to recognize Dr. Dewayne Moore for providing guidance on data analysis, and Drs. Susanna Curtin and Carol Saunders for their assistance in survey development. Countless people contributed to the success of the field portion of this research.

This research was primarily conducted in Tabin Wildlife Reserve, Lahad Datu, Sabah, with the aim to determine the response of tourists to the concept of including invertebrate information in current and planned ecotourism activities in order to increase conservation efforts involving invertebrates. A questionnaire survey was distributed during the preliminary entotourism activity in order to test the conceptual framework set posited in this research. The development of the conceptual framework in this study detailed the model of network of relationship among the variables that needed to be scrutinized. Data collected was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Analysis of Moment Structure (AMOS) software programme which uses the Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). SEM analysis revealed a significant variance of Ecotourism that was well explained by all four exogenous variables (Activity, Information, Interest and Willingness). The findings of this study as...

When presenting conservation messages, the use of anthropomorphism has been intensely debated. On the one hand, it has been argued that attributing human characteristics to wild animals could create misconceptions of a species’ natural history and ecological role. However, from the standpoint of interpretation, anthropomorphism can be a useful tool to help foster a connection to wildlife, which has been shown to strongly correlate to pro-conservation behavioral intentions. This paper discusses the role of anthropomorphism in Zoos Victoria’s Lunar’s Secret Forest exhibit and its affect on behavioural intentions. Results show visitors were able to attribute human characteristics to Lunar – an anthropomorphized Leadbeater’s Possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri), as well as live Leadbeater’s possums. In both instances, anthropomorphism was related to visitors’ emotional connection to and willingness to act on behalf of Leadbeater’s Possums. As zoos continue to grapple with what it means to...

When presenting conservation messages, the use of anthropomorphism has been intensely debated. On the one hand, it has been argued that attributing human characteristics to wild animals could create misconceptions of a species’ natural history and ecological role. However, from the standpoint of interpretation, anthropomorphism can be a useful tool to help foster a connection to wildlife, which has been shown to strongly correlate to pro-conservation behavioral intentions. This paper discusses the role of anthropomorphism in Zoos Victoria’s Lunar’s Secret Forest exhibit and its affect on behavioural intentions. Results show visitors were able to attribute human characteristics to Lunar – an anthropomorphized Leadbeater’s Possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri), as well as live Leadbeater’s possums. In both instances, anthropomorphism was related to visitors’ emotional connection to and willingness to act on behalf of Leadbeater’s Possums. As zoos continue to grapple with what it means to...

The literary review was conducted in order to reveal how the alleged conservation education in zoos has been studied in empirical zoo visitor studies. A qualitative meta-analysis of the empirical articles on zoo visitors and environmental education, with a focus on methodology and the nature of “nature conservation was examined. The main finding was that the zoo visitor literature doesn’t take a critical enough stance on the zoos’ own conservation views. Research based on surveys and quantitative methods give little room for a diversity of meanings concerning zoo visits and more-than-human practices in zoos.
We

Bear experts regularly recommend limiting visitor access to areas
critical to bear survival (e.g., feeding grounds). Seeing a bear in the
wild, however, is a highly prized visitor experience. This article measured
how viewing bears influenced visitors’ connection to bears
(conservation caring), park interest, and support for restrictive management.
Data were obtained from 235 visitors at Katmai National
Park and Preserve. Conservation caring and support for restrictive
management were consistent until visitors spent 11 hours or more
watching bears. Thus, managers may not need to focus on increasing
duration of time spent on viewing platforms. Conservation caring
predicted levels of park interest (β = .51) and support for restrictive
management (β = .44). These data suggested anytime spent watching
bears is capable of producing moderate emotional connections
and strong support for management. As visitors form an emotional
connection to a resource, they are more supportive of stricter management
actions.

Researchers and practitioners often highlight the potential for nature-based tourism and environmental conservation to function symbiotically, with favourable outcomes for visitors and the environment alike. This paper draws on data from two sets of passengers on weeklong cruises in the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador to explore philanthropic intentions resulting from such nature-based tourism experiences. Our findings suggest that the Galapagos experience fosters enjoyment of the environment, new knowledge about that environment, an affective connection with the environment and the local wildlife, and an interest in sharing those connections with others – trip characteristics that are related with intentions to philanthropically support environmental conservation in the Galapagos. Visitors in this study also exhibited values that related to the amounts they were willing to donate in support of a philanthropic fund for the islands' conservation needs. This study contributes to the emerging scholarship on travel-related conservation behaviour and travel philanthropy.

Sustainable tourism experiences seek to inspire tourists to perform behaviors that enhance the environment on site and at home. In sustainable wildlife tourism, flagship species are used as icons to attract attention for conservation initiatives. Parks and protected areas also rely on flagship species to attract visitation. Expected tourist responses from the use of flagship species include raising concern and stimulating proconservation behaviors. However, flagship-based ecotourism has been criticized for not delivering expected conservation benefits for species of interest or biodiversity, and having negative impacts for wildlife on site. Using interactional theory as a framework, this study investigated the potential of the African "Big 5", and eight other commonly observed African species, to stimulate an emotional connection and intention to perform species and biodiversity oriented conservation behaviors. Data were obtained from 416 tourists at Kilimanjaro Airport and analyzed with structural equation modeling. Tourists reported a connection to all 13 species, and this connection was strongly predictive of species and biodiversity oriented behavioral intentions. No differences were observed between the traditional "Big 5" and additional species. Results suggest that species beyond the "Big 5" may be effective flagship species for African parks and protected areas and the associated tourism industry.

Protected area managers often fail to use empirical evidence for their management decisions, yet it is unclear whether this arises from a lack of available data, difficulty in interpreting scientific information for management application, or because managers do not value science for their decisions. To better understand the use of evidence for management decisions, we asked protected area managers in Australia what information is important when making decisions, the types of evidence they find most valuable, and the types of evidence they have for their protected areas. Managers described a complex array of information needed for management decisions, with nine different factors representing decisions about individual management issues and how to prioritize management actions. While managers reported less access to empirical evidence than other sources, this is not because they do not value it, reporting it to be the most valuable source of evidence. Instead, they make up the shortfall in empirical evidence with experience and information synthesized from multiple lines of evidence, which can provide important context for their decisions. We conclude that managers value a diversity of evidence because they face complex conservation decisions. Therefore, while empirical evidence can play an important role, alone this cannot provide all the knowledge managers need.

Growing threats and limited resources have always been the financial realities of biodiversity conservation. As the conservation sector has matured, however, the accountability of conservation investments has become an increasingly debated topic, with two key topics being driven to the forefront of the discourse: understanding how to manage the risks associated with our conservation investments and demonstrating that our investments are making a difference through evidence-based analyses. A better understanding of the uncertainties associated with conservation decisions is a central component of managing risks to investments that is often neglected. This focus issue presents both theoretical and applied approaches to quantifying and managing risks. Furthermore, transparent and replicable approaches to measuring impacts of conservation investments are noticeably absent in many conservation programs globally. This focus issue contains state of the art conservation program impact evaluations that both demonstrate how these methods can be used to measure outcomes as well as directing future investments. This focus issue thus brings together current thinking and case studies that can provide a valuable resource for directing future conservation investments.

Decisions regarding the implementation of conservation management actions should be based on the effectiveness of past investments. However, because of limited evaluation of existing data, actions may be prescribed without evidence of producing a beneficial conservation outcome. We analysed empirical data, collected over 23 years across southern Australia, on the impact of fox baiting on malleefowl to determine its effectiveness. We employed data from extensive monitoring surveys to evaluate the observed relationships between investment in fox control, fox baiting intensity, fox presence and two alternative measures of the malleefowl's response: the number of breeding pairs and population growth. This study is the first to quantify the return on investment from fox control in a conservation context. We discovered there is limited quantitative evidence for a benefit of fox baiting on malleefowl, despite it being the main management action implemented for this nationally threatened, well-studied and iconic species. We found that fox baiting did not significantly decrease the presence of foxes and fox presence was positively correlated with malleefowl conservation. Malleefowl breeding population size increased with investment in baiting, although this relationship depended on the number of years the site had been baited. Nonetheless, most sites had a negative relationship between investment and breeding population. In contrast, malleefowl population growth did not benefit from baiting, suggesting that fox baiting is generally not a cost-effective management action for the conservation of this species. This study provides a powerful example of why management decisions should be based on evidence, rather than ecological intuition. Even though the malleefowl is one of the best-monitored species of conservation concern in Australia, we are still uncertain how to cost-effectively manage this species. We emphasize the urgent need to assess what data we have and determine which species and what actions are most in need of evaluation.

"Zoos in the 21st century are striving to make effective contributions to conservation. Although zoos are extremely popular and host over 600 million visitors worldwide, one challenge zoos face is how to effectively engage visitors and raise awareness and action for conservation. To this end, zoos commonly rely on charismatic megafauna, which have been shown to elicit a connection with zoo visitors. However, little is known about how to measure a connection to a species or how this connection may influence conservation behaviors. This study had two sequential objectives. The first was to develop a scale to measure visitors’ connection to a species (Conservation Caring). The second was to investigate the relationship of Conservation Caring to pro‐conservation behaviors, following a zoo experience. Pre‐ (n=411) and post‐visit (n=452) responses were collected from three sites in order to assess the reliability and validity of a scale to measure Conservation Caring. Structural equation modeling was used to explore the relationship between Conservation Caring and pro‐conservation behaviors. Conservation
Caring was deemed a valid and reliable scale and was a strong predictor of species oriented behaviors (b=0.62), for example, “adopting” an animal, but a weak predictor for biodiversity oriented behaviors (b=0.07), for example, supporting sustainability policies. Results support the role zoos can play in fostering a connection to wildlife and stimulating proconservation
behaviors. Additionally, visitors connected to a wide array of animals. On the basis of these results, zoos may recruit a wider assemblage of species as potential flagships."

The ‘Big Five’ charismatic megafauna concept is considered key for financial competitiveness of protected areas in South Africa. However, this Western colonial concept is also leading to an underappreciation of wider biodiversity and the recovery of other endangered species. This study assessed the heterogeneity of
tourist preferences for big game species in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, using a choice experiment approach, employing latent class modelling, in order to identify tourists’ segments not necessarily drawn to the Big Five. The latent class segmentation identified two segments for both international and national tourists, largely defined by socio-economic characteristics. Less experienced and wealthier tourists were mostly interested in charismatic megafauna, while more experienced, but lower income tourists showed preferences for a broader range of species. Exploring
viewing preferences in this way illustrates the potential to realign conservation businesses to achieve biodiversity conservation objectives. In the short term, managing protected areas for the Big Five and other favourite species will continue to deliver significant financial benefits to local stakeholders, but policy makers should consider using financial mechanisms to subsidize conservation actions for less charismatic species and develop the biodiversity base of safari tourism in South Africa.

This paper explores the perceptions of the impact that volunteer tourism has on the conservation awareness of non-volunteer tourists at the Elephant Nature Park (ENP) in Chiang Mai, Thailand. The ENP is a privately owned sanctuary that rehabilitates injured and abused elephants and relies on tourism and volunteer tourism for its upkeep. Data for this study were obtained through the use of self-administered questionnaires administered to 200 participants during both their pre-visit and post-visit at the ENP. Results showed that after spending time at the park, visitors' awareness about volunteer tourism increased. Participants felt that volunteer tourism increases awareness about conservation issues and volunteering, makes a considerable contribution to conservation, and brings necessary funding to conservation projects. Furthermore, non-volunteer tourists also expressed an interest in volunteering at the ENP, volunteering at home, and donating money to animal conservation organisations. The model of volunteer tourism utilised by the ENP was thus shown to be an effective tool for creating awareness about domestic elephant conservation issues in non-volunteer tourists.

Annually, millions of tourists go on safari and visit zoos primarily to view large charismatic wildlife. These venues rely on the inherent appeal of these animals to increase visitation and anchor conservation efforts. In conservation campaigns, flagship species are used to stimulate a connection to a species and promote pro-conservation behaviors. However, empirical support for behavioral outcomes associated with flagships is lacking. Nor is it known how a connection to a species influences behaviors. This study explored (a) how tourists connect to wildlife, how this relationship is influenced by the on-site experience, and how these factors interact to influence behavior, and (b) how the experiences between safari and zoo venues differed. A model was developed using interactional theory and analyzed with structural equation modeling. Data were obtained from 416 tourists to Tanzanian parks and protected areas and 452 tourists to two U.S. zoos and one aquarium. An existing connection to wildlife and experiential factors directly influenced tourists’ connection to a species, but not behaviors. Tourists’ connection to a species had a significant positive influence on pro-conservation behaviors for individual species and general biodiversity. The influence of the experience was equivalent across safari and zoo venues. Results support the ability of safari and zoo wildlife tourism to produce conservation outcomes.

As fundamental as emotions may be in our experiences with wildlife, very little research addresses this topic. The following paper provides insight into the emotional responses of conservation volunteers participating on conservation holidays through four ethnographic case-studies. Six common emotional responses were identified: anguish, disappointment, frustration, exhilaration, awe and compassion.

Protected area managers often fail to use empirical evidence for their management decisions, yet it is unclear whether this arises from a lack of available data, difficulty in interpreting scientific information for management application, or because managers do not value science for their decisions. To better understand the use of evidence for management decisions, we asked protected area managers in Australia what information is important when making decisions, the types of evidence they find most valuable, and the types of evidence they have for their protected areas. Managers described a complex array of information needed for management decisions, with nine different factors representing decisions about individual management issues and how to prioritize management actions. While managers reported less access to empirical evidence than other sources, this is not because they do not value it, reporting it to be the most valuable source of evidence. Instead, they make up the shortfall in empirical evidence with experience and information synthesized from multiple lines of evidence, which can provide important context for their decisions. We conclude that managers value a diversity of evidence because they face complex conservation decisions. Therefore, while empirical evidence can play an important role, alone this cannot provide all the knowledge managers need.

"Annually, millions of tourists visit natural areas and zoos primarily to view flagship species such as lions and elephants. Venues rely on the inherent charisma of these species to increase visitation and anchor conservation efforts. Expected visitor outcomes from the use of flagships include raised levels of awareness and pro-conservation behaviors. However, the role of flagships in wildlife tourism has been criticized for not delivering conservation benefits for species of interest or biodiversity, and producing negative site impacts. Furthermore, little is known about how the connection to a species influences conservation behaviors. This dissertation addresses this gap in knowledge by extending previous work exploring flagship-based wildlife tourism to include the emotional connection formed with a species and pro-conservation behaviors for individual species and biodiversity.
This dissertation represents a substantial contribution to the field because (a) it incorporates the role of the experience in understanding how tourists connect with a species and how this connection influences pro-conservation behaviors; and (b) is the first attempt to operationalize Conservation Caring as a measure of tourists' connection with a species. Existing studies have investigated how specific elements, such as interpretation or species' morphology may influence programmatic goals or awareness. However, awareness is a poor measure of an emotional connection with an animal. Furthermore, there has not been work done to address the holistic nature of the wildlife viewing experience, and its subsequent influence on behaviors.
In situ study sites consisted of several national parks from the northern circuit in Tanzania. Ex situ sites consisted of two zoos and one aquarium in the Unite States. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze data. Results support the validity of Conservation Caring as a factor; the ability of in situ and ex situ wildlife tourism to influence Conservation Caring; and that this connection is a strong predictor of pro-conservation behaviors. These findings suggest wildlife tourism can deliver conservation outcomes. The studies in this dissertation also provide a valuable framework for structuring wildlife tourism experiences to align with flagship related conservation outcomes, and exploring a wider assemblage of species as potential flagships."

Wildlife viewing is a primary attraction at Denali National Park (DNP), with most
visitors wishing to observe the “Big 5”: grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), wolf (Canis lupus), caribou (Rangifer tarandus), Dall sheep (Ovis dalli dalli), and moose (Alces alces gigas). This study explored the role of individual “Big 5” species on (a) visitors’ wildlife viewing satisfaction, (b) overall trip satisfaction, and (c) awareness of fundamental purposes for establishing DNP (i.e., enabling legislation). Data were obtained from 582 DNP visitor surveys during 2007. Grizzly observations yielded significantly higher
levels of wildlife viewing satisfaction than all other species except caribou. No significant difference was found between species for overall trip satisfaction. Awareness of enabling legislation improved with higher levels of satisfaction and number of species observed. Grizzly bear and caribou are recommended as flagship species. This could increase viewing opportunities and visitor satisfaction within an experienced-based management framework.