Digital Evidence

The rapid development of artificial intelligence and evidence law presents both unprecedented opportunities and complex challenges for legal systems worldwide. Nepal Evidence Act 2031 which was enacted before the pre-digital era faces significant adaptation pressures in the digital age. This paper examines the current provisions of Nepal Evidence Act 2031, analyzes the challenges and opportunities presented by AI technologies and provides recommendations for legislative reform to ensure the law remains relevant and effective in the AI era. The paper has tries to highlight the challenges and both opportunities adopting new AI friendly evidence law, various opportunities such as technical capacity and human resource development and judicial training also automated document review, forensic analysis, fraud detection and digital case management can reduce litigation costs, improve evidentiary reliability and help to address Nepal's chronic case backlog. The paper proposes comprehensive reforms including expanded definitions of evidence, codified procedures for authenticating AI-generated content, mandatory judicial training on AI and the establishment of expert testimony standards tailored to AI systems. It also talks about new IA tools for witness testimony, cross examination, checking finger prints that helps for the speedy and fair justice. The paper has given recommendation for amendment of Evidence Act 2031, mainly section 3. Paper also reveals that fundamental principles of evidence act requires sound specific provisions regarding digital evidence, AI-generated content and automated decision-making systems for substantial revision to address contemporary legal challenges in this digital era. The study concludes that Nepal must urgently modernize its evidence law to preserve justice and rule of law in the digital age. By balancing technological innovation with constitutional safeguards, Nepal can create a flexible, future-oriented evidentiary framework that strengthens legal certainty while ensuring fairness and accessibility in the AI era.

This study examines the evidentiary system in the case of premeditated murder using cyanide poison in Indonesia, with a case study of Jessica Kumala Wongso. The purpose of the study is to understand the application of the evidentiary system in Indonesian criminal procedural law and how judges assess evidence in deciding the case. The method used is normative legal research through analysis of laws, court decisions, and literature reviews from legal books and journals. The results of the study indicate that the evidentiary system in Indonesia uses a negative approach in accordance with the law, namely that the judge must have at least two valid pieces of evidence and a belief in the defendant's guilt before issuing a verdict. In the cyanide coffee case, the evidence used included CCTV footage, witness testimony, expert testimony, forensic laboratory results, and trial facts. Based on this evidence, the judge declared the defendant guilty of premeditated murder. However, the use of circumstantial evidence in this case has raised public debate regarding legal certainty and justice in the criminal proof process in Indonesia.

Penelitian ini mengkaji sistem pembuktian dalam perkara pembunuhan berencana dengan menggunakan racun sianida di Indonesia, dengan studi kasus Jessica Kumala Wongso. Tujuan penelitian adalah untuk memahami penerapan sistem pembuktian dalam hukum acara pidana Indonesia serta bagaimana hakim menilai alat bukti dalam memutuskan perkara tersebut. Metode yang digunakan adalah penelitian hukum normatif melalui analisis undang-undang, putusan pengadilan, serta kajian literatur dari buku dan jurnal hukum. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sistem pembuktian di Indonesia menggunakan pendekatan negatif sesuai dengan undang-undang, yakni hakim harus memiliki minimal dua alat bukti yang sah dan keyakinan atas kesalahan terdakwa sebelum menjatuhkan putusan. Dalam kasus kopi sianida, alat bukti yang digunakan mencakup rekaman CCTV, keterangan saksi, keterangan ahli, hasil pemeriksaan laboratorium forensik, dan fakta-fakta persidangan. Berdasarkan bukti-bukti tersebut, hakim menyatakan terdakwa terbukti melakukan pembunuhan berencana. Namun, penggunaan bukti tidak langsung dalam kasus ini menimbulkan perdebatan di masyarakat terkait kepastian hukum dan keadilan dalam proses pembuktian pidana di Indonesia. Kata Kunci: Sistem pembuktian 1 , pembunuhan berencana 2 , sianida 3 , alat bukti 4 , hukum acara pidana 5

Penelitian ini mengkaji manajemen risiko keamanan informasi dalam investigasi forensik digital terhadap barang bukti aplikasi Telegram pada kasus penipuan online shop. Sifat bukti digital Telegram yang sangat rentan dan volatil mengharuskan penggunaan teknik live forensics menggunakan FTK Imager, yang secara operasional membawa risiko tinggi terhadap integritas data dan validitas hukum Chain of Custody. Untuk memitigasi risiko tersebut, penelitian ini mengintegrasikan metode Asset-Based Risk Assessment (ABRA) untuk mengidentifikasi 10 aset informasi kritis, yang kemudian dievaluasi menggunakan standar ISO/IEC 27005. Hasil analisis menemukan 3 risiko pada level Critical (seperti memory overwrite dan penghapusan jarak jauh) serta 7 risiko level High yang secara langsung mengancam pilar CIA Triad. Sebagai solusi, dirumuskan strategi mitigasi komprehensif meliputi isolasi jaringan menggunakan Faraday bag, implementasi prinsip dua investigator (four-eyes principle), penyusunan SOP baku, dan penggunaan write blocker hardware. Pendekatan terintegrasi ini terbukti efektif menurunkan residual risk ke tingkat yang dapat diterima, sehingga mampu menjamin validitas teknis sekaligus mempertahankan keabsahan yuridis barang bukti digital Telegram dari fase akuisisi hingga persidangan.

Özet Bu çalışma, ceza muhakemesi hukukunda uzaktan adli bilişim soruşturmalarının artan önemini, dijital delillerin elde edilmesi ve değerlendirilmesi bağlamında genel bir bakış sunmaktadır. Dijitalleşme ile birlikte suçların siber ortama taşınması, klasik soruşturma yöntemlerini yetersiz kılmış ve uzaktan veri elde etme tekniklerinin ceza adalet sistemine entegrasyonunu zorunlu hale getirmiştir. Araştırma, nitel yöntem kapsamında doktrinel ve karşılaştırmalı hukuk analizi ile yürütülmüştür. Türk hukukunda dijital delil elde etme süreçlerinin temelini oluşturan Ceza Muhakemesi Kanunu’nun 134. maddesi incelenmiş, uzaktan arama ve hukuka uygun müdahale yöntemleri genel çerçevede ele alınmıştır. Bulgular, dijital delillerin ispat gücünün yalnızca içeriklerine değil; elde edilme, korunma ve analiz süreçlerinin hukuka uygunluğuna bağlı olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bu bağlamda gerçeklik (authenticity), bütünlük (integrity), güvenilirlik (reliability) ve doğrulanabilirlik (verifiability) kriterlerinin sağlanması zorunludur. Ayrıca zincirleme muhafaza süreçlerinin eksiksiz yürütülmesi ve teknik standartların uygulanması, delilin mahkeme nezdindeki değerini doğrudan etkilemektedir. Teknik açıdan ise geleneksel yöntemlerin sınırlılıkları ele alınarak, güvenilir donanım temelli yaklaşımların delil değerini artırma potansiyeli incelenmektedir. Sonuç olarak, uzaktan adli bilişim soruşturmalarının etkinliği, güçlü bir hukuki çerçeve ve güvenilir bir teknolojik altyapının birlikte oluşturulmasına bağlıdır. Anahtar kelimeler: Algoritmik Adalet, Uzaktan Adli Bilişim, Uzaktan Adli Soruşturma, Uzaktan Adli Telekomünikasyon Gözetimi, Dijital Delil. Abstract This study provides an overview of the increasing importance of remote digital forensic investigations in criminal procedural law, particularly in the context of obtaining and evaluating digital evidence. The shift of crimes to the cyber realm due to digitalization has rendered classical investigative methods inadequate, necessitating the integration of remote data acquisition techniques into the criminal justice system. The research was conducted using qualitative methods, employing doctrinal and comparative legal analysis. Article 134 of the Turkish Code of Criminal Procedure, which forms the basis of digital evidence acquisition processes in Turkish law, was examined, and remote search and lawful intervention methods were discussed in general terms. The findings reveal that the probative value of digital evidence depends not only on its content but also on the legality of its acquisition, preservation, and analysis processes. In this context, the criteria of authenticity, integrity, reliability, and verifiability must be met. Furthermore, the complete execution of chain preservation processes and the application of technical standards directly affect the value of the evidence before the court. From a technical perspective, the limitations of traditional methods are addressed, and the potential of reliable hardware-based approaches to enhance evidentiary value is examined. Ultimately, the effectiveness of remote digital forensics investigations depends on the simultaneous establishment of a strong legal framework and a reliable technological infrastructure.. Keywords: Algorithmic Justice, Remote Computing Forensics, Remote Forensic Investigation, Remote Forensic Telecommunications Surveillance, Digital Evidence.

Cybercrime is emerging as a significant global challenge, particularly threatening the security and stability of societies in the Arab world and beyond. The ease with which these crimes can be committed online makes them tough to detect, investigate, and prosecute. This study delves into the key hurdles that Arab nations encounter when trying to tackle cybercrime. A major issue is the lack of comprehensive legal frameworks in place. Additionally, many countries struggle with poor cooperation amongst themselves, coupled with a general public that lacks sufficient awareness of cyber risks. There's also a notable shortage of trained professionals in the cybersecurity field, not to mention an underdeveloped technical infrastructure. All these factors combined create a challenging environment for effectively preventing, investigating, and holding offenders accountable. To combat these challenges, the research recommends several vital actions. First, strengthening international collaboration is crucial since cybercrime recognizes no borders. Raising public awareness through educational initiatives and media campaigns is also essential for equipping individuals and organizations with the knowledge they need to spot and fend off cyber threats. Furthermore, investing in specialized training programs for investigators and cybersecurity professionals will bolster law enforcement's effectiveness. Enhancing national infrastructure from digital forensics capabilities to cybersecurity systems is imperative for effectively detecting and reacting to cyberattacks. In the end, tackling cybercrime demands a cohesive effort from governments, institutions, and individuals alike. By implementing robust legislation, promoting cooperation, increasing public education, and building technical expertise, Arab countries can pave the way for improved digital security and stability.

Digital disk forensics occupies a foundational stratum within the broader discipline of digital forensic science, constituting the systematic acquisition, preservation, and analytical interrogation of data artifacts residing on persistent storage media. The present synthesis undertakes an exhaustive review of evidence extraction and analysis methodologies as applied to digital disk environments, with particular emphasis on three structural pillars: (I) the mathematical and architectural underpinnings of file system forensics, (II) the deterministic and probabilistic algorithms governing data recovery and artifact reconstruction, and (III) the epistemological tensions inherent in forensic validity, reproducibility, and judicial admissibility. The discipline has undergone substantial metamorphosis since its inception in law enforcement contexts during the late 1980s, evolving from rudimentary hexadecimal inspection into a multi-layered, tool-agnostic analytical science. Contemporary practitioners must navigate a complex taxonomic landscape encompassing live acquisition versus dead-box imaging, journaled versus nonjournaled file systems, wear-leveling obfuscation on solid-state media, and the latent variables introduced by anti-forensic instrumentation. This review draws on peer-reviewed literature, established forensic frameworks (NIST SP 800-86, ISO/IEC 27037:2012), and computational models to synthesize a rigorous, architecturally grounded understanding of the field's state through 2024. The principal finding is that evidence extraction fidelity is asymptotically bounded by the irreversible entropy introduced at the storage hardware layer a constraint that no purely software-based analytical pipeline can fully overcome.

The proliferation of computer crime across networked infrastructures has rendered ad hoc investigative approaches epistemologically insufficient. This research constructs a rigorous forensic methodology one that transcends procedural checklists and positions digital forensic science as a deterministic, repeatable, and legally defensible countermeasure architecture against the full spectrum of computer-mediated criminal conduct. Drawing upon foundational contributions from Locard's Exchange Principle, chain-of-custody doctrine, and modern cryptographic integrity verification, the analysis identifies three structural pillars upon which the forensic countermeasure paradigm rests: (I) Evidence Ontology and Acquisition Integrity, (II) Analytical Engine Design and Artifact Reconstruction, and (III) Adversarial Forensics and Anti-Forensic Countermeasures. Each pillar is examined through its mathematical foundations, architectural constraints, and edge-case vulnerabilities. The synthesis concludes that effective forensic methodology is not merely reactive but constitutes a proactive, systemic deterrent when embedded within organizational and legislative architectures. The temporal scope of citations and technical data is bounded at December 2024 in accordance with scholarly rigor.

Computer forensics is one of the earliest and most established branches of digital forensics. It focuses on the identification, preservation, examination, and analysis of data stored within computers and digital storage devices such as hard drives, solid-state drives, USB devices, CDs, DVDs, and memory cards. The objective of computer forensic investigation is to recover and 7 interpret information relevant to legal or investigative purposes while maintaining evidentiary integrity. Computer forensic investigations commonly involve the recovery of deleted files, examination of operating system artifacts, analysis of browser history, reconstruction of user activities, and identification of hidden or encrypted information. Bitstream imaging techniques are frequently used GeeksforGeeks, "Cyber Forensics," available at: 4 fundamentals/cyber-forensics/ Eoghan Casey, Digital Evidence and Computer Crime, 3rd ed., Academic Press, 2011.

This study examines the structural and doctrinal tensions arising from cross-border digital evidence in contemporary criminal proceedings. As data is increasingly stored in distributed cloud infrastructures, territorial principles of jurisdiction are challenged by the transnational nature of information flows. The research analyzes how data sovereignty conflicts, platform-mediated access, and jurisdictional fragmentation affect evidentiary admissibility, chain of custody, and due process guarantees. Using a comparative and interdisciplinary framework integrating criminal procedure, cyberlaw, and transnational governance, the study identifies systemic asymmetries in access to digital evidence and proposes a harmonized admissibility model grounded in procedural safeguards, evidentiary reliability, and international cooperation. The findings support the hypothesis that structural sovereignty fragmentation-rather than isolated procedural deficiencies-constitutes the primary constraint on effective and fair use of digital evidence in criminal justice systems. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.6741318, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20382987, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.32399862

Dijital hukuk, siber güvenlik ve bilişim suçları alanında disiplinler arası çalışmalar yürüten bir akademisyen, gazeteci ve bilirkişiyim. Çalışmalarımda teknolojinin hukuki süreçlere entegrasyonu, akademik ve basın özgürlüğünün dijital mecralardaki korunması ile adli bilişim tekniklerinin yargılama süreçlerindeki rolü üzerine yoğunlaşmaktayım. Temel vizyonum; hak ihlallerini önleyen, şeffaf ve teknik derinliği olan bir dijital adalet sisteminin inşasına akademik katkı sunmaktır.

Trustworthy system logs and application logs are crucial for digital forensics. Researchers have proposed different security mechanisms to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of logs. However, applying current secure logging schemes on heterogeneous formats of logs is tedious. Here, we propose Forensics Aware Language (FAL), a domain-specific language (DSL) through which we can apply a secure logging mechanism on any format of logs. Using FAL, we can define log structure, which represents the format of logs and ensures the security properties of a chosen secure logging scheme. This log structure can later be used by FAL to serve two purposes: it can be used to store system logs securely and it will help application developers for secure application logging by generating the required source code.

Cyber resilience, defined as the capacity to maintain continuity of critical digital services under conditions of crisis, attack, or infrastructural disruption, has emerged as a central concept in contemporary internet governance. This paper adopts a comparative analytical approach to examine Iran's position within this framework, arguing that severe centralization of international connectivity architecture, in the absence of effective redundancy and distribution, can structurally conflict with cyber resilience objectives. The paper further analyzes the role of long-term international sanctions as a structural variable, rather than a mere political justification, in shaping Iran's current governance trajectory. Drawing on the experiences of Estonia, Singapore, the UAE, and Turkey, a four-dimensional framework is proposed for balancing national security, political stability, economic connectivity, and cyber resilience. The paper concludes that genuine resilience is achievable without wholesale internet isolation, and that the path forward lies in intelligent distribution, infrastructural redundancy, and trust-based governance.

Pakistan has 190 million SIM subscribers. Nearly every serious crime leaves a digital trail.



And yet — that trail goes unexamined far too often.



My latest policy brief for Open Horizons Indonesia takes a deep dive into digital evidence and what it could mean for the modernisation of policing in Pakistan. The findings are both encouraging and sobering.



The institutional groundwork is real. Pakistan's National Forensic Agency became operational in April 2026. The PFSA operates across 14 forensic disciplines. The NCCIA handled over 150,000 cybercrime complaints in 2025 alone — including the arrest of suspects behind a Rs 20 billion fraud syndicate in Multan and a 149-person cybercrime factory bust in Faisalabad. The Punjab Safe City Authority has deployed thousands of CCTV cameras across major urban centres.



But infrastructure is not the same as institutionalisation.



In London, facial recognition has led to over 2,100 arrests. Dubai's AI surveillance network helped eliminate crime entirely from Palm Jumeirah and Emirates Hills. New York's CompStat reduced index crime by over 76% across two decades. Singapore now classifies 70% of all reported crime as cybercrime — and has redesigned its entire policing approach accordingly.



The gap in Pakistan is not technological. It is operational, procedural, and — above all — a matter of habit.



A mobile phone seized without proper chain-of-custody documentation. A CCTV system with 50% of cameras offline due to budget disputes. CDR analysis confined to specialist units rather than available to every investigation officer at district level. Courts wrestling with inconsistent admissibility standards for electronic evidence.



The brief sets out ten specific policy recommendations — from a National Digital Evidence Standard to ring-fenced Safe City maintenance budgets to mandatory digital evidence modules in every Police Training College.



The evidentiary potential is there. What remains is the institutional will to use it.

Chain of custody is one of the most vital aspects of any form evidence in the court of law. Even with strong evidence a case with violated chain of custody would always be inadmissible in any form of legal environment. Traditional methods of tracking evidence in India remain largely manual using physical documents or centralized, which opens them to the risks of alteration, mismanagement, or procedural lapses. Recent advancements in part of India such as Andhra Pradesh’s Interoperable Criminal Justice System (ICJS 2.0) with QR-code-based custody tracking and Delhi Police’s usage of blockchain for forensic samples, reflects significant progress toward digitalization. However, these initiatives address either physical or forensic laboratory evidence in isolation, leaving a gap in unified frameworks for both digital and physical evidence. This dissertation proposes a design and ready to use implementation of a Blockchain-Based Chain of Custody Framework for Digital and Physical Evidence with legally acceptable evidence verification. Hyperledger fabric is the underlying structure of this model as it provides permission based blockchain model where only authorized members can access it ensuring the confidentiality, immutability, and role-based access control system. Digital evidence like logs, images, memory dumps will be stored securely using cryptographic hashing in an off- chain storage with blockchain entries protecting their integrity. Physical evidence like weapons, DNA samples, hard disks will be registered or tagged with QR codes or RFID enabling digitalised control of physical evidence and automated update of custody each time the evidence is passed among investigators, court and labs which will be impossible to tamper with. This research is not just about digitalisation of evidence and usage of blockchain which is already in underway in parts of India, it also introduces the integration of both digital forensics with physical forensics as a single ecosystem. This project also touches about a possible usage of hybrid model using Ethereum and Hyperledger together in a theoretical way which might provide transparency of public network along with the privacy of the private network.

Abstract
The rapid expansion of digital technology has transformed
modern society, governance, and economic systems. Along with
technological growth, cyber security threats have emerged as one of
the most critical challenges of the 21st century. Cybercrimes such
as hacking, financial fraud, ransomware attacks, cyber terrorism,
identity theft, and online harassment are increasing at an alarming
rate across the globe. These offences are often borderless,
anonymous, and technologically complex, which makes their
detection, investigation, and prosecution extremely difficult. As a
result, cybercrime poses serious challenges to the effective
functioning of criminal justice administration.
This research paper examines the nature and dimensions of
cyber security threats and analyzes their impact on the legal,
investigative, and technological mechanisms of criminal justice
systems. It explores the adequacy of existing cyber laws,
institutional preparedness of law enforcement agencies, challenges
in digital evidence collection, and the role of cyber forensics. The
study also highlights jurisdictional conflicts, lack of technical
expertise, infrastructural gaps, and procedural delays that hinder
justice delivery in cybercrime cases.The paper adopts an analytical and doctrinal research
approach based on secondary data from legal provisions,
government reports, case laws, and cybercrime statistics. The
findings indicate that while legislative frameworks have evolved,
enforcement capacity and technological readiness remain
insufficient. Strengthening cyber laws, enhancing digital forensic
infrastructure, promoting international cooperation, and building
specialized cybercrime units are essential for improving criminal
justice responses.
The study concludes that ensuring cyber security is not
merely a technological requirement but a criminal justice necessity.
A coordinated, technology-driven, and legally robust framework is
vital to combat cyber threats and ensure timely and effective justice
in the digital era.
Keywords: Cyber Security Threats,Criminal Justice
Administration; Digital Evidence; Cyber Law; Challenges in
Cybercrime Administration, Investigation ,Data Protection, Digital
Forensics

The more complex a problem that arises due to an ease in information technology makes cyberattacks increasingly dangerous and dangerous for systems within a country or entity. Crimes thatarise must be detected and a preventive action taken immediately so that no party is harmed for atechnological crime. This study aims to find various methods to review and investigate cyberattacks for security in digital forensics and can provide input and additional insight to all partiesincluding investigators or practitioners and users in the field of digital forensics about variousmethods that can be used to detect and prevent cyber attacks. This research was conducted byconducting a literature study of various studies on cyber attacks. The research method used isdescriptive qualitative method by taking data from literacy studies on research on cyber attacks.The results of the literature study show that the factors that can improve the performance of digitalforensics are the Digital Forensics Fr...

Effective incident response mechanisms are crucial for maintaining system continuity during security incidents. Equally important is the secure preservation of forensic evidence and chain of custody records for potential legal proceedings. However, traditional methods of incident response and evidence handling can be vulnerable to tampering as they rely on the assumption of a preexisting level of trust among the involved parties. In this study, we propose a blockchain-based model, DFIRChain, to record all operations within digital forensics and incident response (DFIR) processes on a private permissioned Hyperledger Fabric blockchain, from alert management to case management. By integrating our blockchain-based model into DFIR processes, we aim to ensure the integrity and authenticity of evidence, enhance legal compliance, and contribute to organizations' digital forensic readiness. Adli Bilişime Hazır Bulunmayı Artırmak için Blok Zincir Tabanlı Bir Model Önerisi Anahtar Kelimeler Adli bilişim, Olay müdahalesi, Adli bilişime hazır olma, Blok zincir teknolojileri Öz: Etkili olay müdahale mekanizmaları, güvenlik olayları sırasında sistem sürekliliğini korumak için çok önemlidir. Aynı derecede önemli olan, olası yasal işlemler için delillerin ve koruma zinciri kayıtlarının güvenli bir şekilde saklanmasıdır. Bununla birlikte, olay müdahale ve delillerin yönetilmesine ilişkin geleneksel yöntemler, ilgili taraflar arasında önceden var olan bir güven düzeyinin varsayımına dayandığından, tahrifata karşı savunmasız olabilir. Bu çalışmada, alarm yönetiminden vaka yönetimine kadar adli bilişim ve olay müdahale (DFIR) süreçlerindeki tüm işlemleri, özel izinli Hyperledger Fabric blok zincirinde saklamak için blok zinciri tabanlı bir model olan DFIRChain'i öneriyoruz. Blok zincir tabanlı modelimizi DFIR süreçlerine entegre ederek delillerin bütünlüğünü ve orijinalliğini sağlamayı, yasal uyumluluğu geliştirmeyi ve kuruluşların adli bilişim incelemelerine hazır bulunmalarına katkı sağlamayı amaçlıyoruz.

The expansion of global digital infrastructure — particularly submarine cable networks — has fundamentally redefined the geopolitical calculus of the twenty-first century. The Strait of Hormuz, long recognized as the world's foremost energy chokepoint, has simultaneously emerged as one of the region's most sensitive digital communication corridors. This article adopts a critical-analytical approach within the field of international technology law to examine the tension between two foundational principles: freedom of global communications as a core value of international law, and the imposition of technology sanctions regimes against states that occupy strategically critical positions along this infrastructure. The central argument is that the current technology sanctions regime is not only incompatible with the principles of internet governance and the regulations of the International Telecommunication Union, but actively endangers the stability of global digital infrastructure. The article concludes by proposing a five-element legal framework for more equitable governance of critical digital infrastructure in strategically significant geographic regions.

Keywords: Digital Geopolitics, Submarine Cables, Technology Sanctions, Strait of Hormuz, Internet Governance, International Communications Law, Critical Digital Infrastructure, Iran, Unilateral Coercive Measures, Digital Sovereignty JEL Classification: K33, K38, F51, O33

JEL Classification: K33, K38, F51, F53, L96, O33

Emerging governance frameworks across major jurisdictions agree that human oversight is primary to the safe deployment of Agentic AI, particularly for high-risk systems. The EU AI Act (Article 14), the NIST AI Risk Management Framework, and the African Union's Continental AI Strategy all share a common concern: allowing AI systems to operate autonomously, without human interference to monitor outputs or pause wrong processes, creates real risks to human safety and fundamental human rights. More important is the question of accountability and liability when an AI system delivers a wrong or harmful response. Human oversight creates the opportunity for shared liability and meaningful human accountability. This paper does not dispute these principles; in fact, it agrees with the logic. What it questions is the assumption that the conditions enabling effective human oversight are stable and reliably present. Governance frameworks treat oversight as a design feature, something you build into a system once and can thereafter depend on. In theory, it can be permissible, but in practice, environmental conditions that influence human oversight are rarely stable. Connectivity drops, institutions are under-resourced, and operators are fatigued or undertrained. The human in the loop is only as effective as the conditions surrounding them. The argument is built on four pieces of evidence. First, a deployment incident I led involving an agentic voice system at a career event in an underground venue with unstable network connection. That incident is a real-world case showing how infrastructural gaps can directly undermine oversight in ways no governance framework anticipates. Second, the paper draws on existing peer-reviewed scholarship on Article 14, automation bias, African AI governance, and the Brussels Effect, which already documents the inadequacies of current frameworks. This paper extends that body of work rather than starting from scratch. Third, it examines published evidence on global infrastructure conditions, particularly within the Global South, and how those conditions shape the real-world deployment of agentic systems. Fourth, and most significantly, the findings of Dagstuhl Seminar 25272, which interrogated where the EU AI Act falls short and identified environmental factors as one of three conditions for effective human oversight, providing the scholarly validation that sits at the centre of this paper's position. The paper also proposes a Policy of Functional AI built on two pre-deployment requirements. First, that systems be assessed against the environment they will actually meet, not the one in which they were tested. Second, that systems be capable of signalling functional breakdown in time for oversight to prevent harm rather than document it. The contribution is positioned as a framework design proposition, with implications for both high and low risk systems within infrastructure-volatile deployment contexts.

Technological transformation has become the most prominent feature that greatly transitioning banking operations from traditional to digital. The Digital Financial Literacy and Cybercrimes are the challenges that customers are facing in using banking technology. The banks are neglecting its role to enhance user confidence towards digital financial literacy and cybercrimes. This study measures the relationships between digital financial literacy (attitude, awareness) and cybercrime (attitude, awareness) and examining the banks' roles in boosting user confidence towards digital financial literacy and cybercrimes. Using convenient sampling technique, a structured questionnaire was sent to the customers of private Sudanese banks' through WhatsApp groups and Facebook accounts. A total of 447 completed questionnaire were received. The Smart-PLS 4.0 was used to analyze the data. The results revealed that attitudes and awareness towards digital financial literary and cybercrimes are strongly influenced perceptions of banks' role in boosting user confidence. The implication of this study suggests that digital financial literacy and cybercrimes are crucial to both the customers and banks and therefore banks need to focus on policies towards enriching the education of digital financial literacy and cybercrimes in boosting user confidence.

Digital evidence underpin the majority of crimes as their analysis is an integral part of almost every criminal investigation. Even if we temporarily disregard the numerous challenges in the collection and analysis of digital evidence, the exchange of the evidence among the different stakeholders has many thorny issues. Of specific interest are cross-border criminal investigations as the complexity is significantly high due to the heterogeneity of legal frameworks, which beyond time bottlenecks can also become prohibiting. The aim of this article is to analyse the current state of practice of cross-border investigations considering the efficacy of current collaboration protocols along with the challenges and drawbacks to be overcome. Further to performing a legally oriented research treatise, we recall all the challenges raised in the literature and discuss them from a more practical yet global perspective. Thus, this article paves the way to enabling practitioners and stakeholders ...

Due to its critical role in cybersecurity, digital forensics has received significant attention from researchers and practitioners alike. The ever increasing sophistication of modern cyberattacks is directly related to the complexity of evidence acquisition, which often requires the use of several technologies. To date, researchers have presented many surveys and reviews on the field. However, such articles focused on the advances of each particular domain of digital forensics individually. Therefore, while each of these surveys facilitates researchers and practitioners to keep up with the latest advances in a particular domain of digital forensics, the global perspective is missing. Aiming to fill this gap, we performed a qualitative review of all the relevant reviews in the field of digital forensics, determined the main topics on digital forensics topics and identified their main challenges. Despite the diversity of topics and methods, there are several common problems that are faced by almost all of them, with most of them residing in evidence acquisition and pre-processing due to counter analysis methods and difficulties of collecting data from devices, the cloud etc. Beyond pure technical issues, our study highlights procedural issues in terms of readiness, reporting and presentation, as well as ethics, highlighting the European perspective which is traditionally stricter in terms of privacy. Our extensive analysis paves the way for closer collaboration among researcher and practitioners among different topics of digital forensics. INDEX TERMS Digital forensics, cybersecurity, review of reviews, forensic investigations, meta review.

Due to its critical role in cybersecurity, digital forensics has received much focus from researchers and practitioners. The ever increasing sophistication of modern cyberattacks is directly related to the complexity of evidence acquisition, which often requires the use of different technologies. To date, researchers have presented many surveys and reviews in the field. However, such works focused on the advances of each domain of digital forensics individually. Therefore, while each of these surveys facilitates researchers and practitioners to keep up with the latest advances in a particular domain of digital forensics, the overall picture is missing. By following a sound research methodology, we performed a qualitative meta-analysis of the literature in digital forensics. After a thorough analysis of such literature, we identified key issues and challenges that spanned across different domains and allowed us to draw promising research lines, facilitating the adoption of strategies...

The rapid emergence of Agentic AI systems-capable of independent planning, multi-step decision-making, and autonomous execution without direct human intervention-renders the traditional model of static authority delegation inadequate for legal and accountability purposes. This paper proposes a novel framework termed Runtime Legitimacy, coupled with Authority Decay, under which the validity of delegated authority must be re-verified not only at the time of initial grant but continuously, in real time, at the moment of executing any high-risk operation. By shifting the burden of proof from "authority was granted" to "authority remained valid at the moment of execution," this approach transforms continuous monitoring from a technical recommendation into an evidentiary legal obligation. It mitigates unbounded vicarious liability for organizations in the absence of legal personality for the AI system itself and aligns with emerging regulatory requirements, including the EU AI Act's emphasis on continuous oversight, dynamic human-in-the-loop mechanisms, post-market monitoring, and accountability. The framework incorporates risk-based classification of operations, mandatory re-attestation before sensitive actions, escalation to human decision-makers when re-attestation fails, and immutable audit trails for judicial defensibility. An illustrative financial system example demonstrates practical application. While offering significant reductions in civil, criminal, and regulatory liability risks, implementation challenges-such as latency in critical operations and balanced user experience-are acknowledged. This cyber law-oriented model bridges technical architecture and legal imperatives, providing a foundation for governance standards in the era of autonomous AI. The framework is positioned to inform both organizational risk management practices and potential regulatory reform initiatives addressing the unique challenges posed by agentic artificial intelligence systems.

In the evolving field of cyber law, AI governance frameworks often appear robust on paper, but practical implementation in courts reveals significant gaps, particularly in attributing liability for algorithmic decision-making. This paper examines the disconnect between AI systems and legal accountability, focusing on whether errors stem from human, systemic, or institutional factors. Drawing on European regulations such as the EU AI Act and the Product Liability Directive, it analyzes five key axes that influence AI-related lawsuits: human final authority, transparency, provable accountability, post-deployment failures, and hidden gaps between systems and law. Real-world cases from Europe, including Replika, GEMA v. OpenAI, and others, illustrate these challenges. The paper also provides insights for Iran, where undefined oversight increases liability risks, and offers practical recommendations for organizations to enhance legal defenses. Ultimately, it emphasizes the need for documented roles, provable oversight, and anticipatory measures to ensure AI systems are legally safe.

This study examines the emergence of generative artificial intelligence as a structural enabler of deepfake-based fraud and extortion within contemporary criminal systems. Moving beyond traditional evidentiary paradigms, the research analyzes how synthetic media disrupts attribution, evidentiary reliability, and doctrinal interpretations of mens rea. Using an interdisciplinary framework integrating criminal law, digital forensics, and criminological analysis, the study identifies patterns of deception, operational scalability, and attribution ambiguity. The findings support the hypothesis that generative AI functions as an evidentiary distortion mechanism that complicates, but does not eliminate, individual criminal responsibility. The article proposes a doctrinal model of algorithmic attribution that distinguishes between synthetic output and human agency, reinforcing evidentiary safeguards necessary for due process in technologically mediated criminal environments.

The rapid development of digital technologies and the emergence of virtual environments – such as online games, social media platforms, and the metaverse – have transformed the traditional understanding of property and ownership. The concept of virtual property, referring to digital assets that carry economic, social, or personal value, poses significant theoretical and practical challenges to classical property law systems grounded in materiality and tangibility. This paper explores virtual property as a modern objective of property law, with particular attention to the doctrinal, legislative, and judicial implications for Georgian law. The central argument of the paper is that Georgian property law, codified under the Civil Code of Georgia and largely rooted in classical Roman-Germanic legal traditions, lacks sufficient conceptual and normative tools to regulate virtual property adequately. The absence of legal recognition of digital assets as property creates uncertainty for individuals and businesses engaging in virtual economies and hinders the protection of legitimate interests in digital assets – such as cryptocurrencies, NFTs, in-game items, and digital accounts. Furthermore, this gap complicates issues of inheritance, taxation, and enforcement related to digital holdings. Methodologically, the paper adopts a comparative and analytical approach, combining doctrinal analysis of Georgian law with theoretical perspectives from property theory and digital jurisprudence. It also considers relevant case law and academic discourse from foreign jurisdictions to identify possible pathways for reform. The study evaluates whether existing Georgian legal categories – such as intangible property, personal rights, or intellectual property – can encompass virtual assets, or whether legislative innovation is required to establish a new legal framework tailored to digital ownership. The paper concludes that recognizing virtual property as a legitimate object of property law in Georgia would require both conceptual and legislative modernization. This may include amending the Civil Code to explicitly define digital and virtual assets as objects of property rights, establishing clear criteria for ownership and transfer, and developing procedural mechanisms for their protection and succession. Additionally, regulatory coordination with international standards and European digital asset frameworks would ensure coherence and compatibility with emerging global practices. Ultimately, the paper argues that the evolution of property law toward recognition of virtual property is not merely a technical adjustment but a fundamental step in aligning Georgian private law with the realities of the digital age. Such recognition would enhance legal certainty, protect users’ digital interests, and support Georgia’s integration into the global digital economy.

Today is the era of the Internet of Things (IoT). The recent advances in hardware and information technology have accelerated the deployment of billions of interconnected, smart and adaptive devices in critical infrastructures like health, transportation, environmental control, and home automation. Transferring data over a network without requiring any kind of human-to-computer or human-to-human interaction, brings reliability and convenience to consumers, but also opens a new world of opportunity for intruders, and introduces a whole set of unique and complicated questions to the field of Digital Forensics. Although IoT data could be a rich source of evidence, forensics professionals cope with diverse problems, starting from the huge variety of IoT devices and non-standard formats, to the multitenant cloud infrastructure and the resulting multi-jurisdictional litigations. A further challenge is the end-to-end encryption which represents a trade-off between users' right to privacy and the success of the forensics investigation. Due to its volatile nature, digital evidence has to be acquired and analyzed using validated tools and techniques that ensure the maintenance of the Chain of Custody. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to identify and discuss the main issues involved in the complex process of IoT-based investigations, particularly all legal, privacy and cloud security challenges. Furthermore, this work provides an overview of the past and current theoretical models in the digital forensics science. Special attention is paid to frameworks that aim to extract data in a privacy-preserving manner or secure the evidence integrity using decentralized blockchain-based solutions. In addition, the present paper addresses the ongoing Forensics-as-a-Service (FaaS) paradigm, as well as some promising cross-cutting data reduction and forensics intelligence techniques. Finally, several other research trends and open issues are presented, with emphasis on the need for proactive Forensics Readiness strategies and generally agreed-upon standards.

Bu çalışma, dijitalleşmenin ceza muhakemesi hukukunda yol açtığı yapısal değişimleri siber suçlar özelinde ele alarak koruma tedbirlerinin mevcut kanuni çerçeve içerisinde ne derece işlevsel olduğunu incelemektedir. Günümüzde dijital/elektronik delillerin artan rolü, klasik muhakeme araçlarının yetersiz kaldığını ve özellikle Ceza Muhakemesi Kanunu (CMK) ve Polis Vazife ve Salahiyet Kanunu (PVSK) gibi mevcut yasal düzenlemelerde yer alan koruma tedbirlerinin dijital/siber ortamlara uygun şekilde güncellenmesi gerektiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışmada dijital koruma tedbirleri üzerinde durularak uygulamada karşılaşılan teknik, normatif ve anayasal sorunlara değinilmektedir. Mevcut düzenlemelerin fiziksel delil esaslı olduğu, oysa dijital çağın farklı delil türleri, veri güvenliği sorunları, teknik izleme biçimleri ve bireysel hak ihlalleri gibi yeni meseleleri doğurduğu tespit edilmektedir. Yeri geldikçe Almanya, Fransa ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri (ABD) hukuk sistemlerinden örnekler verilerek analiz yapılmakta ve Avrupa İnsan Hakları Mahkemesi (AİHM) içtihatları doğrultusunda ölçülülük ve denetim ilkelerine dayalı normatif bir güncellemenin gerekliliği vurgulanmaktadır. Sonuç olarak dijital delillerin güvenliği ve bireysel hakların korunması arasındaki denge gözetilerek koruma tedbirlerinin yeniden yapılandırılması önerilmektedir. Bu kapsamda koruma tedbirlerinin yeniden sınıflandırılması ve CMK'ya

The digital transformation of commerce, innovation, and creative
industries has intensified intellectual property (IP) violations in
cyberspace. Traditional enforcement mechanisms are increasingly
inadequate in addressing online piracy, trade secret misappropriation,
patent data theft, and digital counterfeiting. This study evaluates the
role of digital forensics in strengthening intellectual property enforcem
ent in India from legal, corporate governance, and policy perspectives.
Using a mixed-method approach combining doctrinal legal analysis and
empirical statistical evaluation (n = 150 professionals), the study
identifies a strong positive correlation between digital forensic adoption
and IP enforcement effectiveness (r = 0.68, p < 0.01). Regression
analysis indicates that 46% of enforcement variance is explained by
forensic integration (R² = 0.46, p < 0.001). While India’s statutory
framework under the Information Technology Act, 2000, Copyright
Act, 1957, Patents Act, 1970, and Indian Evidence Act, 1872 provides
legal recognition to electronic evidence, procedural and institutional
gaps undermine enforcement efficiency. The paper proposes structural
reforms in legal procedure, judicial capacity-building, corporate
compliance systems, and technological standardization. The findings
contribute to interdisciplinary scholarship linking cyber forensics and
IP enforcement in emerging digital economies.

Privacy preservation and computer forensics investigation are two contradictory information security directions. The privacy preservation principle stress on utmost protection of users privacy as privacy is a right, whereas computer forensics investigation attempts to unearth user data for possible digital evidences hidden within them. Although, a number of research efforts have been directed towards privacy preservation during forensics investigation process and consequently, forensics tools are in existence, most of them employ binary privacy levels, i.e., user privacy is either fully protected or not at all. In this paper, we introduce the concept of quaternary privacy levels and their protection mechanism in computer forensics investigation process. The privacy levels are identified on the basis of different entities and their participation roles during a computer forensics investigation process and represent different granule of privacy that can be enforced by the court of law depending on the nature of crime to be investigated. We also re-define the forensics investigation steps to regard different privacy levels for an investigation process.

Puji syukur kami panjatkan ke hadirat Allah SWT atas limpahan rahmat dan karunia-Nya sehingga makalah yang berjudul "Kontrol Keamanan Informasi pada Sistem Informasi Akademik (SIAK) Universitas Muhammadiyah Sukabumi (UMMI)" ini dapat diselesaikan dengan baik. Makalah ini disusun sebagai pemenuhan tugas Pertemuan 11 mata kuliah Manajemen Risiko Keamanan Informasi, dan merupakan kelanjutan langsung dari tugas Pertemuan 10 tentang Risk Treatment. Jika pada Pertemuan 10 kami telah mengidentifikasi risiko-risiko keamanan dan menetapkan strategi perlakuannya, maka pada makalah ini kami menganalisis secara mendalam kontrol-kontrol keamanan yang perlu diimplementasikan sebagai realisasi dari strategi risk treatment tersebut. Analisis kontrol keamanan dalam makalah ini mengacu pada kasus nyata SIAK UMMI dan diklasifikasikan ke dalam tiga kategori utama: kontrol teknis, kontrol administratif, dan kontrol fisik. Kami berharap makalah ini dapat memberikan kontribusi nyata dalam pemahaman implementasi keamanan informasi di lingkungan perguruan tinggi.

Puji syukur kami panjatkan ke hadirat Allah SWT atas limpahan rahmat dan karunia-Nya sehingga makalah yang berjudul "Kontrol Keamanan Informasi pada Sistem Informasi Akademik (SIAK) Universitas Muhammadiyah Sukabumi (UMMI)" ini dapat diselesaikan dengan baik. Makalah ini disusun sebagai pemenuhan tugas Pertemuan 11 mata kuliah Manajemen Risiko Keamanan Informasi, dan merupakan kelanjutan langsung dari tugas Pertemuan 10 tentang Risk Treatment. Jika pada Pertemuan 10 kami telah mengidentifikasi risiko-risiko keamanan dan menetapkan strategi perlakuannya, maka pada makalah ini kami menganalisis secara mendalam kontrol-kontrol keamanan yang perlu diimplementasikan sebagai realisasi dari strategi risk treatment tersebut. Analisis kontrol keamanan dalam makalah ini mengacu pada kasus nyata SIAK UMMI dan diklasifikasikan ke dalam tiga kategori utama: kontrol teknis, kontrol administratif, dan kontrol fisik. Kami berharap makalah ini dapat memberikan kontribusi nyata dalam pemahaman implementasi keamanan informasi di lingkungan perguruan tinggi.

Although fire-related forensic anthropology cases are relatively infrequent, thermally altered remains pose significant challenges in both victim identification and the reconstruction of peri-and postmortem events [1, 2]. Forensic anthropologists encounter these difficulties in various contexts. Their increasing involvement in disaster victim recovery and identification has led to a growing awareness of the effects of fire on human remains, making such knowledge more crucial than ever [3-6].

Digital forensic investigations increasingly require
rapid triage of live systems to capture volatile process evidence
before shutdown, yet existing approaches present significant
adoption barriers. Enterprise-scale endpoint detection solutions
demand substantial infrastructure and configuration, while
lightweight alternatives either lack runtime analysis capabilities,
depend on external data collection, or require manual inspection
and deep expertise. This creates an operational gap for resourceconstrained environments needing immediate, evidencepreserving process screening and classification during active
incidents. This paper presents a minimal-footprint, PowerShellbased tool that addresses the gap by enumerating active
Windows processes, computing SHA-256 hashes, and performing
signature-based classification through a single command-line
invocation. The proposed solution automates signature-based
identification of known malicious executables, generates alerts,
and produces digitally signed, tamper-evident forensic reports to
support integrity verification of the generated report artifact and
evidence-handling workflows. By requiring zero installation and
leveraging native Windows capabilities, the proposed solution
enables small-to-medium enterprises and individual analysts to
conduct rapid live triage without sacrificing forensic soundness.
The tool is explicitly scoped to Windows environments, employs
signature-dependent detection, and operates in read-only mode
to prioritize evidence preservation over active prevention.
Keywords: Live forensics, process triage, digital evidence,
malware detection, signature-based analysis, forensic integrity

Digital evidence underpin the majority of crimes as their analysis is an integral part of almost every criminal investigation. Even if we temporarily disregard the numerous challenges in the collection and analysis of digital evidence, the exchange of the evidence among the different stakeholders has many thorny issues. Of specific interest are cross-border criminal investigations as the complexity is significantly high due to the heterogeneity of legal frameworks which beyond time bottlenecks can also become prohibiting. The aim of this article is to analyse the current state of practice of cross-border investigations considering the efficacy of current collaboration protocols along with the challenges and drawbacks to be overcome. Further to performing a legally-oriented research treatise, we recall all the challenges raised in the literature and discuss them from a more practical yet global perspective. Thus, this article paves the way to enabling practitioners and stakeholders to leverage horizontal strategies to fill in the identified gaps timely and accurately.

The digital revolution is renewing many aspects of our lives, which is also a challenge in judicial processes, such as the Chain-of-Custody (CoC) process of any electronic evidence. A CoC management system must be designed to guarantee them to maintain its integrity in court. This issue is essential for digital evidence’s admissibility and probative value. This work has built and validated a real prototype to manage the CoC process of any digital evidence. Our technological solution follows a process model that separates the evidence registry and any evidence itself for scalability purposes. It includes the development of an open-source smart contract under Quorum, a version of Ethereum oriented to private business environments. The significant findings of our analysis have been: (1) Blockchain networks can become a solution, where integrity, privacy and traceability must be guaranteed between untrustworthy parties; and (2) the necessity of promoting the standardization of CoC smart...

School of Law conducts research on war crimes and other serious violations of international humanitarian law and human rights. Using evidence-based methods and innovative technologies, we support efforts to hold perpetrators accountable and to protect vulnerable populations. We also train students and advocates to document human rights violations and turn this information into effective action.

The rapid advancement of digital technology has fundamentally transformed how crimes are committed and investigated, necessitating a re-evaluation of traditional evidentiary rules. In Malawi, electronic evidence range from text messages, voice recordings and digital financial transactions-is increasingly central to both civil and criminal proceedings. However, its admissibility remains fraught with legal, technical, and procedural challenges. This paper provides a doctrinal analysis of the statutory and jurisprudential framework governing electronic evidence in Malawi, focusing on the Criminal Procedure and Evidence Code (CP&EC) and the Electronic Transactions and Cyber Security Act (ETCSA), 2016. Drawing on judicial precedents such as Brown Mpinganjira v Lemani and Dr. Thomson Mpinganjira v The Republic, the study highlights persistent judicial skepticism rooted in concerns over authenticity, hearsay, and chain of custody. It further examines systemic barriers including lack of forensic expertise, inadequate infrastructure, and privacy conflicts arising from investigative techniques like phone tapping. Synthesizing insights from Golda Chilembwe Rapozo's policy-oriented analysis and Marion Siliya's empirical research involving legal practitioners and IT experts, this paper argues for a progressive interpretation of existing laws, enhanced institutional capacity building, and harmonization with international standards such as the Budapest Convention. The author concludes that while Malawi has made legislative strides toward recognizing electronic evidence, meaningful reform requires not only updated statutes but also a cultural shift within the judiciary and law enforcement agencies to embrace digital justice.

The transformation of crime in the digital age has outpaced the evolution of legal frameworks across jurisdictions. In Pakistan, the Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act, 2016 (PECA) constitutes the principal legislative instrument governing cyber offences. However, the rapid emergence of artificial intelligence, transnational cyber operations, and data-centric economies has exposed structural inadequacies within the existing legal regime. This article critically examines the conceptual evolution of cybercrime, the strengths and limitations of PECA, evidentiary challenges under the Qanun-e-Shahadat Order, 1984, and the regulatory vacuum surrounding artificial intelligence and data protection. It argues for a paradigm shift from reactive regulation to proactive, technology-integrated legal governance grounded in human rights and digital ethics.

Il contributo analizza la nozione di indipendenza delle autorità di controllo come delineata dal diritto dell'Unione e dalla giurisprudenza della Corte di giustizia, evidenziando come l'elevato standard di autonomia previsto dal quadro normativo europeo rischi di rimanere in larga misura inattuato nella prassi nazionale. Considerate le ricadute che ne derivano, tanto sul piano costituzionale quanto su quello dell'effettività della tutela dei diritti fondamentali, l'articolo propone un rafforzamento degli strumenti di accountability esistenti. L'assunto di fondo è che indipendenza e responsabilità non costituiscano categorie antitetiche, ma dimensioni complementari e reciprocamente rafforzative per un assetto istituzionale capace di coniugare autonomia decisionale e adeguate forme di supervisione.

The use of data analytics in forensic accounting has evolved significantly, reflecting current trends and advanced techniques. This review examines the integration of data analytics into forensic accounting practices, highlighting its growing importance due to the increasing complexity of financial fraud and financial crimes. The statement of the problem underscores the challenge of effectively detecting and investigating financial irregularities amidst vast amounts of data. The rationale for this research stems from the need to enhance investigative accuracy and efficiency in forensic accounting. Objectives include analyzing contemporary data analytics techniques, assessing their effectiveness, and exploring future trends. The hypothesis posits that data analytics improves forensic accounting outcomes by providing more precise and timely insights. Methodology involves a comprehensive literature review and case study analysis to evaluate the impact of data analytics. Findings indicate that data analytics significantly enhances detection capabilities and operational efficiency, although challenges such as data quality and system integration remain. Limitations of the study include a focus on existing literature and the rapid pace of technological advancements that may affect long-term relevance.

The proliferation of the "Halal Tech" economy has introduced specialized applications that leverage religious sentiment to establish user trust. Kahf Guard, a prominent Android-based content filter, claims to offer a "Shariah-compliant" and "Privacy-First" digital experience. This paper presents a rigorous forensic audit of Kahf Guard (v4.6.186) using static analysis and reverse engineering methodologies. Our findings reveal a sophisticated surveillance architecture integrated beneath a religious veneer. Critical discoveries include unauthorized Meta (Facebook) SDK data harvesting through "Advanced Matching" protocols, real-time session replay of user gestures and PII (Personally Identifiable Information) via OpenReplay, and architectural backdoors facilitating Remote Code Execution (RCE). The research concludes that the application serves as a dual-purpose tool for both content filtering and intrusive data mining, violating both international data protection standards (GDPR) and the ethical principles of Amanah (Trust) in digital computing.

The year 2025 marked a critical inflection point in the history of cybersecurity. Threat actors became more sophisticated, better resourced, and increasingly reliant on artificial intelligence to amplify the scale and impact of their operations. The attack surface expanded dramatically as hybrid cloud environments proliferated, supply chains deepened, and organizations continued migrating sensitive workloads to distributed infrastructure 4 each transition introducing new vulnerabilities for adversaries to exploit.

This study was conducted in the mountainous region of South Kivu in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Its purpose was to identify the edible wild fruits of this mountainous region of the West Albertine Rift. Data were collected through ethnobotanical surveys conducted at local markets and in rural households. A total of 800 informants participated in the data collection. The wild fruit flora recorded consists of 151 species divided into 54 families and 86 genera. They are dominated by the Solanaceae, Malvaceae, Rosaceae, Fabaceae, Arecaceae and Myrtaceae families. The morphological types are dominated by trees (48%), and woody species dominate the biological types. Berries (62 species) and drupes (53 species) are the main fruit categories. Although mainly consumed as table fruit, a large proportion is consumed as vegetables and spices. In terms of fruit availability and abundance at the sites, the results suggest that the city of Bukavu (37.50%), the territories of Kabare (29.08%) and Kalehe (17.99%) are the sites where the wild fruit species can be found, due to their proximity to the PNKB and the ethnic diversity in the city. Various wild fruits sold in markets in the study area also come from other provinces such as Kisangani (Treculia africana, Dacryodes edulis), low altitude areas (Tamarindus indica, Mangifera indica) and other Sudano-Zambesian regions, e.g. Dovyalis macrocalyx, Syzygium guineense, factors that may contribute to the prolonged availability of certain fruits in the area.