Engineering Geology

Engineering geological properties of rock masses, such as discontinuities, degree of weathering, strength and hydraulic conductivities along the dam axis, and the excavatibility of diversion tunnels, power tunnels and spillways, were investigated in order to determine probable problems and necessary precautions to be taken prior to construction. In this study, the Obruk dam site, constructed on the Kızılırmak River to the north of Çorum, central Anatolia, was investigated from the standpoint of the aforementioned engineering geological aspects. Quaternary alluvium at the dam site has a thickness of about 65 m and overlies the Eocene basalt basement. Diversion and power tunnels were constructed in the basalts. In order to determine the distribution of the basalt, both horizontally and vertically, core samples were collected from preliminary geotechnical boreholes drilled by the General Directorate of the State Hydraulic Works (DSI), and the depth to groundwater was measured in these boreholes. The geological and geomechanical properties of the basalt are controlled by tectonism and weathering, and these properties vary over short distances. The mineralogical, petrographical, and geomechanical properties of the basalt core samples were determined. Based on these test results, the rock mass cropping out at the dam site has been classified for tunneling, and possible support systems suggested.

Il presente rapporto tecnico e stato redatto a fronte della prestazione di servizio affidata al CNR-IAMC dal Comune di Casalnuovo di Napoli (NA) con determina n.70 del 09.05.2013. L’attivita ha riguardato l'esecuzione di indagini geofisiche (georadar e geoelettrica), l'esecuzione di sondaggi stratigrafici e l'installazione di piezometri nell’area circostante l’edificio scolastico di via Benevento, al fine di verificare eventuali formazioni di vuoti venutisi a creare in seguito alle variazioni altimetriche della falda e per monitorare, in un arco di tempo significativo, l’entita di tali variazioni. Il monitoraggio e stato eseguito attraverso la installazione di piezometri nei sondaggi utilizzati per la ricostruzione stratigrafica; le perforazioni sono state spinte fino alla profondita di 10 m. dal p. c. Per meglio evidenziare le condizioni idrogeologiche del sito ed eventuali anomalie stratigrafiche nei primi metri del sottosuolo, si e ritenuto effettuare due tomografie e...

This study explores the thermal behavior of four widely used Iranian granites-Khoramdareh, Nehbandan, Natanz, and Taibad-under temperatures ranging from 20°C to 1050°C. The investigation focused on the evolution of microcracks and their impact on key physical properties such as porosity, water absorption, and P-wave velocity in both dry and saturated conditions. Using fluorescence microscopy, linear microcrack density (LMD), microcracks type, and width were analyzed in detail. At 300°C, all granite samples showed an increase in inter-crystalline microcracks, leading to elevated porosity and water absorption. At 600°C, the quartz phase transition at 573°C resulted in volumetric expansion, causing a temporary decrease in porosity and an increase in P wave velocity. For example, the dry P wave velocities at 600°C were 4.77 km/s for Taibad, 4.71 km/s for Khoramdareh, 3.84 km/s for Natanz, and 5.12 km/s for Nehbandan. Above 750°C, trans-crystalline microcracks became dominant, significantly increasing porosity and water absorption while reducing P wave velocity. Nehbandan granite suffered structural failure at 600°C, whereas Natanz exhibited the highest LMD at 750°C, indicating severe internal damage. The study highlights the importance of microcracks evolution and mineralogical transformations, particularly quartz phase transitions, in controlling granite's thermal stability. Three critical thresholds (300°C, 600°C, and 750°C) were identified as turning points in the deterioration process. Additionally, this research introduces a novel methodological approach, combining fluorescence microscopy with physical testing to achieve detailed characterization of thermal damage. By extending the temperature range up to 1050°C, the study provides valuable insights into granite performance in fire-prone and heat-exposed environments.

We explore a novel acquisition geometry that can be used to estimate the linear component of site amplification using a dense nodal seismic network installed in Yangon, Myanmar’s largest city. The city is surrounded by several seismically active faults, including the Sagaing Fault, which is capable of generating Mw > 7.0 earthquakes. As part of the Irrawaddy delta system, this densely populated city sits on young water-saturated alluvium that is likely to amplify earthquake ground motions. Assessing site response is crucial for understanding the seismic hazard potential to minimize the loss of property and lives. Using a dense seismic array comprised of 110 three-component nodes, we estimated the frequency-dependent site amplification pattern of Yangon from regional (Lg) and local (Sg) seismic phases. Since this acquisition geometry is not sensitive to Q or geometric spreading, this approach provides a fast and cost-effective way to estimate the linear component of site response as a function of frequency. Our Lg and Sg site response results identify regions with high site amplification that have significantly greater seismic hazard risks for regional and local distance earthquakes. We observed consistent site response characteristics between both Lg and Sg phases. Site amplification patterns correlate well with the surficial geology and subsurface structure beneath the city. De-amplification is observed across all frequencies at stations located above an anticlinal structure composed of older Pliocene rocks (i.e. the Irrawaddy Formation). Conversely, highly amplified areas correspond to younger Pleistocene to recent alluvial plains consisting of loose, unconsolidated alluvium. We found a dominant horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) peak at ∼1.0 Hz from ambient noise, likely corresponding to the thickness of unconsolidated sediments. We suggest that the growing number of nodal networks worldwide can be used to estimate frequency-dependent site amplification, addressing key data gaps in seismic hazard assessment.

It is important to perform research to the degree that it is adequate to identify the features of the terrain composition, before, during, and after the building of facilities since predicting the behaviour of rock mass during tunnel construction is a complicated engineering challenge. Engineering research works in laboratories and in the field are of different scope and methodology during testing. In this paper, the established interdependencies of some of the basic parameters obtained during the testing of rock mass are presented: Edyn = f(Vp), Edyn = f(RMR) i Edyn = f(Q). Also, the relations between the engineering systems of rock mass classification and seismic primary waves are derived. RMR = f(Vp), Q = f(Vp). The relations were based on the examination of the rock mass for the construction needs of the tunnel on the Nis-Merdare highway. The results obtained in this study can be applied in environments that have similar lithological and structural characteristics.

1. Extended abstract The traditional limit equilibrium method and the kinematic analyses are the first choices in the geotechnical practice for the assessment of the slope stability of a particular rock slope. The reason is that very few empirical methods exist for this purpose. This paper presents results of the slope stability assessment with limit equilibrium, kinematical and empirical methods for over 50 deep cut slopes in highly weathered schists along the A2 motorway section Kicevo-Ohrid in RN Macedonia. The research area is mainly composed of phyllite, sericite schists, quartz-sericite schists and graphitic schists. These rocks are highly weathered, tectonically disturbed and often folded, which means they are prone to local deformations, especially in aspects of the long-term impact of atmospheric influences and the existence of unfavourable joint sets. Although most of the failures that occurred had local character, on several cut slopes global failure occurred. The slope s...

Conozcamos los peligros geológicos de la región andina es una publicación científica y de divulgación elaborada en el marco del Proyecto Multinacional Andino Geociencias para las Comunidades Andinas (PMA-GCA), que reúne el trabajo colaborativo de los servicios geológicos de Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Venezuela. Bajo la coordinación del Servicio Geológico Minero Argentino (SEGEMAR) y con el apoyo del Servicio Geológico de Canadá, esta obra constituye un importante esfuerzo regional orientado a fortalecer el conocimiento y la gestión del riesgo geológico en los Andes.
La publicación tiene como objetivo principal difundir, en un lenguaje accesible, la naturaleza de los peligros geológicos que afectan a la región andina, integrando conocimientos científicos con una clara orientación hacia la prevención y la planificación territorial. A través de un enfoque didáctico, el libro explica los procesos geológicos responsables de desastres naturales —tanto de origen endógeno (sismicidad, volcanismo, tsunamis) como exógeno (movimientos en masa, erosión)—, junto con los factores que condicionan su ocurrencia.
Un elemento central de la obra es la elaboración de un mapa regional de peligros geológicos a escala 1:7.500.000, desarrollado mediante herramientas de sistemas de información geográfica (SIG) y construido a partir de bases de datos geológicas actualizadas a nivel sudamericano. Este producto sintetiza el conocimiento geocientífico regional y permite identificar áreas susceptibles a diversos fenómenos peligrosos.
Asimismo, el texto se distingue por presentar ejemplos concretos de desastres ocurridos en distintos países andinos, lo que facilita la comprensión del riesgo en contextos reales y refuerza la importancia de las geociencias en la prevención y mitigación de catástrofes naturales. En este sentido, la obra se constituye como una herramienta clave para investigadores, profesionales, tomadores de decisiones y comunidades locales.
Cabe destacar la participación de un amplio equipo interdisciplinario de especialistas de los países involucrados, entre los cuales se incluye la contribución de Riguey Valladares en representación de Venezuela, reflejando el carácter colaborativo e integrador del proyecto a escala regional.
En conjunto, esta publicación representa un aporte significativo a la comprensión de los peligros geológicos en la región andina y al fortalecimiento de estrategias de gestión del riesgo basadas en el conocimiento científico y la cooperación internacional.

We use the numerical, discrete element, Discontinuous Deformation Analysis (DDA) method to study velocitydistance evolution of the catastrophic Vajont landslide using a newly implemented friction degradation law based on empirical evidence that peak friction is mobilized in rock discontinuities after displacement distance of ≈1% of overriding block length. It has been established by previous researchers that during the catastrophic event the slide moved across a basal plane that possessed a friction angle of 12 o only (μ = 0.231) due to previous sliding events. When the catastrophic event was triggered, most likely due to excessive filling of the reservoir, friction had to be further degraded to explain the mapped runout distance and the estimated duration of the event. We find that further friction degradation of 25% must have taken place both across the basal plane as well as in the rock joints consisting the sliding mass. This degradation resulted in 25 m/s peak velocity of the sliding mass, about 570 m runout distance, and sliding duration of 37 s. Our back-analyzed frictionvelocity relationship expands the range of velocity and displacement values that can be controlled experimentally using rotary shear tests, by an order of magnitude. With the aid of numerical analysis, therefore, catastrophic landslides can become natural experiments at the field scale that provide ultimate friction degradation values for clay filled rock discontinuities. Using the case of the Vajont landslide we find that frictional resistance across clay-filled dolomite interfaces cannot degrade to values lower than μ = 0.16.

This article analyzes rockfall susceptibility in the steep caldera slopes upstream of Athinios port, Santorini Island, Greece. The study area is situated in the internal rim of a submarine caldera where the most important problem that is recorded is the frequent rockfalls that not only cause damages to roads and vehicles but also pose a threat to people that are transported or located on the port. As a result, a methodology which combines information relatively to surficial and engineering geology, geomorphological processes, and structural analysis was adopted. The methodology incorporates evenly a maximum runout map generated by means of reach probability of rock block analysis, using the empirical model of "reach angle". Additionally volumes of rockfall events categorized and presented through a map to assist the compilation of rockfall susceptibility map which allows us to identify areas and human activities exposed to these incidents and set up several protection meters.

This article analyzes rockfall susceptibility in the steep caldera slopes upstream of Athinios port, Santorini Island, Greece. The study area is situated in the internal rim of a submarine caldera where the most important problem that is recorded is the frequent rockfalls that not only cause damages to roads and vehicles but also pose a threat to people that are transported or located on the port. As a result, a methodology which combines information relatively to surficial and engineering geology, geomorphological processes, and structural analysis was adopted. The methodology incorporates evenly a maximum runout map generated by means of reach probability of rock block analysis, using the empirical model of "reach angle". Additionally volumes of rockfall events categorized and presented through a map to assist the compilation of rockfall susceptibility map which allows us to identify areas and human activities exposed to these incidents and set up several protection meters.

... IPTC 13888 Meeting the Challenge of Mesozoic Exploration Andreas Laake, John Quigley, Claudio Strobbia, Larry Velasco, Peter Vermeer, Peter van Baaren, Mike Cogan, and Ayman Shabrawi, WesternGeco Page 2. 2 IPTC 13888 ... [17] O'Donnell, GP, CB Daly, VS Mount, and ...

Mathematical model is formulated using Partial differential equations, and analyzed to describe the dynamics of wave propagation with application to landslide. Its occurrence leads to loss of lives of people and their properties. This study aims at understanding the dynamics of landslide wave propagation, in order to make adequate projection in an attempt to mitigate the risks involved in the occurrence. The objective of this study is; to develop a mathematical model to describe the dynamics of a landslide wave propagation. Numerical solutions were carried out using Runge-Kutta algorithm's inbuilt in MATLAB, to simulate the current and future dynamics of the model. The mathematical model was used to simulate and analyze landslide wave propagation phenomena in affected areas. The results of this study showed that the maximum amplitude of 0.49m is achieved at an inclination of 50° and gradually drops down to 0.45m at a slope of 19.2°. This defines the region where inhabitants should be relocated to avoid loss of lives and destruction of property during the occurrence of landslide. The high amplitude occurs in the wave propagation region, necessitating the implementation of control strategies along the same region.

Use of a mixing model to investigate groundwater-surface water mixing and nitrogen biogeochemistry in the bed of a groundwater-fed river • The water source mixing model will be refined through collection of more samples (summer 2010) and use of other modelling techniques (e.g. PCA, bayesian statistics). • N biogeochemistry will also be explored using natural abundance  15 N-and  O-NO 3 -measurements. • Hydrologic measurements from shallow piezometers will allow further investigation of the controls on groundwater -surface water mixing. Pore water samples were collected from between 10 and 50cm depth in the river bed at >9 sites along the reach on three separate occasions. Surface water and groundwater samples (100cm depth in the river bed + riparian zone) were also collected. Concentrations of conservative chemical species and nitrate were determined. A three end member mixing model was used to quantify sources of water within the river bed to: i) identify the hyporheic zone ii) investigate nitrogen biogeochemistry

This research presents a geotechnical comparative screening between theoretical and empirical soil bearing capacities across 13 selected data nodes in Cabanatuan City. Utilizing the Philippine Geoportal database for initial soil classification, the study identified a subsurface dominated by Fine Sand and various Loams, reflecting the alluvial depositional history of the Pampanga River Basin. Theoretical baselines were established using IBC 2024 presumptive allowable bearing capacities, yielding a constrained range of 71.82 kPa to 95.76 kPa. Conversely, site-specific Standard Penetration Test (SPT) data from available DPWH borehole logs were analyzed. Using empirical correlations to derive allowable bearing capacities (𝑞 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑) from N-values, results revealed a highly heterogeneous subsurface ranging from 45 kPa to 225 kPa. While the IBC framework was conservative in 62% of locations, field-based values in 5 out of 13 sampled sites exhibited lower field-based values than the corresponding IBC presumptive values. This indicates potentially unconservative assumptions in specific zones if presumptive values are utilized without site-specific verification. The study concludes that international codes provide a necessary administrative baseline but cannot fully capture the observed 180 KPa variation among the investigated samples. Consequently, site-specific geotechnical investigations remain indispensable for ensuring structural integrity and design optimization in complex alluvial environments.

This paper proposes a sequential engineering methodology that relies on alternative contingency plans to solve the structural mystery of the "Devil's Kettle" pothole. Historically, this phenomenon can be modeled as a two-bucket system, where water flows through an underground conduit from a full bucket to an empty one. However, we hypothesize that the lower "bucket" is entirely filled with water but sealed by a heavy, dense layer of volcanic rock, forcing the water to exit through alternative lateral or upper fissures. Given that previous tracking attempts utilized lightweight floating objects that were either trapped or crushed by hydrostatic pressure and structural narrowness, this research presents a step-by-step contingency-driven framework to safely explore this hidden geometry.

Motivated by the need to explain the large displacement and rotation that numerous caisson-type quay walls suffered in the port of Kobe during the devastating 1995 earthquake, a detailed numerical analysis is presented for the response of such a wall from Rokko Island. Utilising the Pastor–Zienkiewicz elastoplastic constitutive model, an effective stress dynamic analysis is performed using as input the accelerogram recorded 32 m below the ground surface in the nearby Port Island. The evolution during shaking of lateral displacements, plastic strains and pore water pressures sheds some light on the complex interplay of several simultaneously occurring phenomena: the development of oscillatory inertia forces on the wall, in phase or out of phase with the backfill soil and water pressures; the simple-shear seismic deformation of the soil and the ensuing initial development of positive excess pore water pressures in the backfill and the foundation soil; the extensional deformation devel...

Slope stability analysis is a geotechnical engineering problem characterized by many sources of uncertainty. Some of the uncertainties are related to the variability of soil properties involved in the analysis. In this paper, a numerical procedure for a probabilistic slope stability analysis based on a Monte Carlo simulation that considers the spatial variability of the soil properties is presented. The approach adopts the first-order reliability method to determine the critical failure surface and to conduct preliminary sensitivity analyses. The performance function was formulated by Spencer's limit equilibrium method to calculate the reliability index defined by Hasofer and Lind. As examples, probabilistic stability assessments were performed to study the effects of uncertainty due to the variability of soil properties on slope stability in layered slopes. The examples provide insight into the application of uncertainty treatment to the slope stability and show the importance of the spatial variability of soil properties with regard to the outcome of a probabilistic assessment.

Rainfall infiltration and suction variation in unsaturated soils must be taken into consideration in the analysis of most slope stability problems, particularly in the tropical regions where the annual precipitation is high. The process of rainfall infiltration into unsaturated soils is an extremely complex problem attributed to the non-linearity of the hydraulic property functions of the unsaturated soils. This paper describes in detail two instrumented laboratory models, i.e. one-dimensional soil column, and two-dimensional slope model used to provide experimental evidences for the transient suction variations in the unsaturated soils under certain rainfall conditions. The performances of the laboratory models were tested on four typical types of residual soils, i.e. sand-gravel, silty gravel, sandy silt, and silt (kaolin), and a two-layered soil system, i.e. sandy silt underlain by silty gravel. The results showed that the suction distributions for the single-layered homogeneous soils obtained from the simpler onedimensional soil column were almost identical to that of two-dimensional slope model. However, the two-dimensional slope model should be employed for the two-layered soil system because of the dominant effect of the lateral flow mechanism. The capillary barrier effect was observed when a less permeable soil layer was underlain by a more permeable soil layer. The minimum suction value in soil is governed by the rainfall intensity, rainfall duration, and the saturated permeability of soil. The in?ltration rate of the ?ne-grained soils that subjected to shrink and crack was independent of the soil permeability, but was significantly governed by the preferential flows developed in the soils.

Slope failures in the tropical regions, particularly Malaysia are commonly triggered by frequent rainfall. The tropical rainfall can be characterized as short and intense throughout the year, and prolonged and less intense during monsoon seasons. Under such circumstances, various ...

Rock slope, slope height, rock discontinuity orientations, and undesigned excavated slopes are the primary contributing factors to the instability of the road in the mountain area. To evaluate the stability of the ten rock slopes along the proposed Lerabire road in Mergasur town / Erbil, NE-Iraq, both natural and artificial (excavated) rock slope states were considered. Fieldwork, laboratory work, and office work were all included in this study. Data collection from slopes where failures have occurred or may occur as part of the fieldwork for five slope stations in the Bekhme Formation and five slope stations in the Qamchuqa Formation was measured.
The laboratory work included calculating the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of intact rocks from the strength index (Is) of the point load test. The UCS of rock as determined from the point load index ranges from 84 MPa to 121 MPa in the Bekhme Formation and 60 MPa to 113 MPa in the Qamchuqa Formation.
Assessing the stability of the selected rock slopes analyzed by using the kinematic approach with DIPS v6.008 software and slope mass rating system (SMR) and continuous-slope mass rating system (Con-SMR) with SMRTool - v205 software to determine the type of slope failure and degree of the stability, also the Q-slope system was applied to determine the stability condition. This is an efficient approach for classifying rock slope engineering. Kinematic results, in the natural rock slope states, may have the planar sliding, wedge sliding, flexural toppling and direct toppling , however, in artificial rock slope states; may have planar sliding, wedge sliding, flexural toppling and direct toppling in different rock slope stations.
        According to the SMR-Tool software results for both the discrete-SMR and continuous-SMR in the artificial rock slopes revealed that station no. 6R was shown to be a completely unstable slope of class V (five). By using the above-mentioned software, the natural slopes of stations no. 1R and 9R only from Con-SMR, as well as the artificial slopes of station no. 4R from discrete-SMR and stations no. 4R, 7R and 9R from Con-SMR were shown to be unstable slopes of class IV (four). Also, the SMR-Tool software results for the natural rock slopes revealed that stations no.1R to 5R, 7R, 9R and 10R from discrete-SMR, and stations no. 2R to 7R from continuous-SMR, as well as the artificial slopes of the stations no. 7R, 9R and 10R from discrete-SMR, and station no. 10R from continuous-SMR, were shown to be a partially stable slopes with a failure probability of 0.4 (40%).
        The results for the natural slopes showed that stations no. 6R, 8R and 10R from both discrete-SMR and continuous-SMR, as well as the artificial slopes of station no. 5R from discrete-SMR and continuous-SMR, were shown to be stable slopes with a failure probability of 0.2 (20%).
          Finally, the results of the SMR-Tool software for both the discrete-SMR and continuous-SMR in the artificial rock slopes revealed that stations no. 1R to 3R and 8R were shown to be completely stable slopes. 
Following the Q-slope system results, stability conditions are determined by projecting the Q-slope and slope angle values on the Q-slope chart. The Q-slope chart in natural rock slopes illustrated that station no. 3R to 5R were shown as stable slopes. Station no. 1R, 2R and 6R-10R were determined unstable slopes. Station no. 2R and 3R revealed that the slope stability is uncertain. However, the Q-slope chart in artificial rock slopes revealed that stations no. 4R-7R, 9R and 10R were determined as unstable slopes, but stations no. 1R-3R and 8R revealed that the slope stability is uncertain.
The geometry design for the road was proposed based on slope elevation and slope horizontal distance. This study also predicts the occurrence of more failures from the unstable parts in the future, therefore some remedial measures were proposed to reinforce the slopes.

Rock slope, slope height, rock discontinuity orientations, and undesigned excavated slopes are the primary contributing factors to the instability of the road in the mountain area. The eight rock slopes in Mergasur town, NE-Iraq, were chosen to be assessed for stability using the kinematic approach with DIPS v6.008 software to determine the type of slope failure and the Q-slope system applied to determine the stability condition. This is an efficient approach for classifying rock slope engineering. According to the kinematic results, stations 1–5 and 7 may have planar sliding, whereas stations 4–8 may experience wedge sliding, stations 1, 2, and 7-8 may experience flexural toppling, and station 3 may have direct toppling. In accordance with the Q-slope system results, stability conditions are determined by projecting the Q-slope and slope angle values on the Q-slope chart.

Instability of rock slopes appears to be influenced by the slope height, slope angle, and orientations of the geological discontinuities (bedding planes, joints, faults, etc.). Furthermore, the kinematic technique is the most practicable method for evaluating the rock slope stability that includes joint sets. The stability of eight rock slopes in the research area was assessed using the kinematic approach with DIPS v6.008 software and slope mass rating system (SMR) and continuous- slope mass rating system (Con-SMR) with SMRTool - v205 software. Based on the kinematic result the planar sliding may occur in stations 1–5 and 7, wedge sliding may occur in stations 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, flexural toppling may occur in stations 1, 2, 7 and 8, and direct toppling may occur in station 3. According to the SMR-Tool software results for discrete-(SMR) revealed that station no.1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 (planar sliding), station 4 (wedge sliding) and 7 (flexural toppling) was shown to be a partially stable slope with failure probability of 0.4. Also, station no.1, 2 and 8 (flexural toppling) and station no. 5, 6, 7 and 8 (wedge sliding) were determined to be a stable
slope with a failure probability of 0.2. Then, station no. 3 (direct toppling) was shown to be a completely stable slope with failure probability of 0. But in Con-SMR assessment in a comparison to discrete-SMR, station no. 1 and 7 (planar sliding) and 4 (wedge sliding) is unstable slopes with a failure chance of 0.6. Then station no. 2, 3, 4 and 5 (planar sliding) and station 7 (flexural toppling) are partially stable slopes with failure probability of 0.4. But, station no.1, 2 and 8 (flexural toppling) and station 5, 6, 7 and 8 (wedge sliding) were determined to be a stable slope with a failure probability of 0.2. Nonetheless, station no. 3 (direct toppling) was shown to be a completely stable slope with failure probability of 0.

The study of slope stability along the proposed Lerabire road in the Mergasur town, in Erbil city, Kurdistan region of NE-Iraq is carried out. To evaluate the stability of slopes, twenty stations were selected along the mentioned road, two stations in the rock slopes of the Shiranish Formation, eleven stations in the Bekhme Formation, six stations in the
Qamchuqa Formation, and one station in the Sarmord Formation. In this study, the stability of rock slopes has been evaluated by Landslide Possibility Index system. The results of the Landslide Possibility Index category in the rock slopes along the proposed Lerabire road ranges from a very low to low for rock slopes in the stations 1 and 2 (marl
and marly limestone of the Shiranish Formation, Moderate for rock slopes in the stations 3, 4 and 19 (limestone of the Bekhme Formation), High for rock slopes in the stations 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 (limestone of the Bekhme Formation), stations 12, 17 (limestone and marly limestone of the Qamchuqa Formation), station 20 (limestone of the Sarmord Formation
and very high for rock slopes in the stations 13, 14, 15, 16 (limestone and marly limestone of the Qamchuqa Formation), station 18 (limestone of the Bekhme Formation). According to Landslide Possibility Index category the hazard category is Low in station 1 in the Shiranish Formation, but in station 2, 3, 4 and 19 are Moderate, moreover, in the station 5, 11, 12, 17, 18 and 20 are high. The rock slope assessment indicated that the height of theslope face, slope angle, high degree of weathering and discontinuities spacing are the factors that increase the failure possibility. To prevent landslide the ditch method is used in the Shiranish Formation rock slopes, the reinforcement techniques are used in the Behkme Formation rock slopes and rock removal method are used in Qamchuqa and Sarmord
Formation rock slopes.

This geophysical research was conducted within the sedimentary environments of Onitsha, Nkpologwu, Nteje, Nimo, Nkpor Uno, Alor, Enugwuukwu and Nsugbe, parts of Anambra Basin Formations. The study employed integration of Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) and 2D Electrical Resistivity Tomography (2D ERT) techniques in delineating depth to competent rock for sustainable foundation development of engineering infrastructures. Eleven VES and eight horizontal profiling were carried out using Schlumberger and Wenner arrays, respectively. Omega 48 resistivity meter was used for data acquisition. Sounding curves were obtained from plots of resistivity-electrode spacing. The VES plots were subjected to partial curve matching using interpex sounding inversion software to generate the geoelectric sections of the areas. The geoelectrical sections revealed resistivity variations with respect to thickness and depth of different lithology. Data from ERT was processed using RES2DINV software to generate 2D inverse model resistivity sections of the studied areas. Information obtained from these electrical resistivity techniques correlated effectively with the information from borehole log drilled around the study areas. The result of interpretation of both data suggested that the studied areas are underlain by; top soil with apparent resistivity ranging from 8.6537-3764.1 Ωm and depth of 1-4 m, which was suggested to be saturated shale, sand or laterite formation. Weathered zone with apparent resistivity range of 4.0663-381.01 Ωm were suggested to be shale sand formations with varying depth 1-4 m and thickness 2-28 m across the studied areas, classified as the incompetent layers for sustainable development of engineering infrastructures. The competent zones with apparent resistivity range of 138.74-67572 Ωm were interpreted to be sand/sandstone/laterite formations with also varying depth from 1-29 m and thickness ≥ 20 m. These layered sediments were considered as the competent rock formation suitable for engineering structures for sustainable infrastructural development in the studied areas and environs.

In dam and tunnel construction, the ground speaks first, and only those who stand before it can hear its truth. Yet modern project management increasingly empowers engineers who design, decide and dictate from a distance, fundamentally detached from geological reality. This paper critiques the culture of in abstentia engineering, in which theoretical Q-values derived from tender-stage Geotechnical Baseline Reports override field-mapped classifications, and decision-making proceeds without direct observation of the excavation face. The argument is grounded in field evidence from the Polihali Intake Tower and corresponding tunnel, the 450 m underground works of Contract C4020 of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project Phase II, and is anchored in the documentary record of the tender-stage Stage 2 Geotechnical Investigation (MSKC JV, 2019). The empirical core is a synthesis of ten longitudinal mapping sheets covering Rounds 50 to 200 between November 2025 and January 2026, across two drawing series (P2W-4020 and P2W-4023), spanning chainage CH 0+091 to CH 0+491. The paper demonstrates three interconnected failures: a geological mischaracterisation that simplifies a stratified Drakensberg basalt sequence into a uniform competent material; a predictive limitation of the Q-system as applied without reference to stratigraphic variability; and a procedural breakdown in which Non-Conformance Reports are issued against field observation rather than against the design assumption that the field has falsified. Two analytical contributions are advanced. The first is the Stratigraphic Variability Control Index (SVCI), a quantitative parameter expressing the degree of lithological heterogeneity along a tunnel reach and its measured correlation with observed Q-value depression. The mapped reach of the Polihali Intake Tunnel returns a mean SVCI of approximately 0.59, with approximately 55 per cent of the reach above the threshold of 0.70, a quantitative confirmation that the ground encountered is materially more heterogeneous than the tender-stage model anticipated. The second contribution is the Investigation Gap Register, a documentary instrument that tabulates, item by item with section-level citations, the specific elements of pre-construction characterisation that are absent from the tunnel-axis tender record. Together these two instruments transform the dispute from a methodological argument about Q-value calibration into a documented contradiction between supervisory practice and the source documentation upon which that practice purports to rely. The paper concludes that the in abstentia enforcement of design-stage Q-values is not merely procedurally questionable but contractually unsustainable under FIDIC Sub-Clause 4.12, and that the integrity of the observational method requires the restoration of the geologist's standing as the fieldresident interpreter of ground truth. Rocks, unlike spreadsheets, cannot lie.

Fractional calculus, which generalizes differentiation and integration to non-integer orders, has become an effective tool for modeling systems with memory and non-local characteristics. This paper provides a concise review of the fundamental theory, numerical methods, and key applications of fractional calculus. Core definitions, including the Riemann-Liouville and Caputo derivatives, are introduced alongside their main properties and physical interpretations. The review highlights widely used numerical techniques for solving fractional differential equations and discusses their computational challenges. Applications in physics, engineering, and related fields are examined, with particular emphasis on anomalous diffusion, viscoelastic systems, and fractional-order control. Comparisons with classical integer-order models demonstrate the enhanced modeling capability of fractional approaches in capturing complex dynamics. Finally, current challenges and research directions, including efficient computation and parameter identification, are outlined. This review aims to serve as a compact reference for researchers and practitioners working with fractional models.

This work focused on three landslide events that have attracted significant public concern due to the associated calamities. The slides have been analyzed for their geology, tectonics and geomorphological (GTG) characteristics. In addition, an understanding of the link between GTG characteristics and the landslide events was established.To achieve this, field surveys were conducted, particularly for the Charlotte landslide, where identification of geological structures was perturbed by the obliteration of vegetation and sediment accumulations on relatively planar sections of the landslide area. GIS and remote sensing techniques enhanced mapping and determination of landslide characteristics, and laboratory analyses on rock samples provided the petrological characterization of the landslides.Results indicated change in rock composition (gabbro), variable geomorphological characteristics and the nature/pattern and density of discontinuities; these factors, to a large extent, determine...

Notre recherche s’est basée sur l’étude pétrographique, métallographique et structurale du  secteur d’Obiatuku. Obiatuku se trouve dans le territoire d’Ubundu dans la province de la Tshopo en République démocratique du Congo. L’objectif de ce travail est de fournir des nouvelles connaissances géologiques de ce secteur d’étude, d’éclairer et préciser la diversité
pétrographique et métallographique observée macroscopiquement au niveau de différentes formations géologiques retrouvées dans ce secteur et une observation microscopique. Pour  atteindre nos objectifs, nous avons fait recours aux méthodes descriptives basées sur : la  documentation, les travaux de terrain, les travaux de laboratoire et les travaux de bureau. Les  résultats de cette recherche prouvent que ce secteur présente une lithologie dominée par des roches magmatiques tel que : le granite, la diorite, amphibolite ; des roches métamorphiques
telles que le quartzite gneiss et des roches sédimentaires dont la cuirasse latéritique, shale,  argilite. La caractérisation minéralogique des différents lithofaciès observés témoigne la présence de quartz, feldspath, micas, pyrite, olivine, biotite, amphibole, plagioclases, pyrite, hornblende et certains oxydes et hydroxydes de fer remarquable par la coloration rougeâtre,
brunâtre, noirâtre et jaunâtre observée au sein de différents échantillons prélevés sur terrain.
La caractérisation métallographique de ce secteur se remarque par la présence de goethite, hématite, chalcopyrite et de l’Or. Sur le plan structural, l’étude des déformations discontinues réalisée dans ce document est faite par une méthode de lever structural dite méthode quantitative
qui a consisté à prélever les directions, pendages, ouverture et l’extension des fractures rencontrées sur terrain. Les données issues de cette méthode sont traitées sur les logiciels Qgis 2.18, Dips, Win Tensor, MS Excel 2016 en fonction de l’objectif poursuivi. Cette étude structurale réalisée à partir des données acquises sur terrain nous a permis de définir l’organisation et l’orientation des fracturations, mais aussi le régime de déformation (régime compressif), moteur de la déformation.
Quant à ce qui concerne la cartographie, notre secteur d’étude comme nous avons dit ci-haut,  se trouve dans le territoire d’Ubundu situé au S-E de la ville de Kisangani avec une surface topographique accidentée dont l’altitude varie de 408 à 547 mètres (une différence d’altitude
de 139m).
Mots-clés : Obiatuku, Lithofaciès, Métallographie, structural, cartes.

ABSTRAK Kawasan Bentang Alam Karst (KBAK) merupakan kawasan yang dilindungi dan perlu adanya upaya konservasi untuk mencegah terjadinya pengerukan dan pembukaan lahan secara ilegal. Tercatat, konsentrasi karbondioksida secara global per tahun 2018 mengalami peningkatan hingga 50% dari mulainya revolusi industri dengan konsentrasi sebesar 421 ppm. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah melakukan perhitungan terhadap karbon yang tersimpan di KBAK Tasikmalaya sebagai upaya konservasi terhadap KBAK Tasikmalaya. Perhitungan stok karbon dibagi menjadi dua area. Area utara yang terdiri dari Anggota Sukaraja memiliki stok karbon sebesar 418.528,05 ton dan area selatan yang tersusun atas Formasi Kalipucang memiliki stok karbon sebesar 13 x 10 6 ton. Besaran nilai dari stok karbon dipengaruhi oleh kadar CaO dalam batugamping serta volume batugamping. Total fluks karbon yang dihasilkan di daerah penelitian mencapai 4,98x10 10 mg/hari hingga 9,78x10 13 mg/hari dengan rata-rata nilai per sampel 3,16x10 11 hingga 2,58x 13 mg/hari. Besaran nilai fluks karbon dipengaruhi oleh kadar ion bikarbonat dan nilai debit.

The Panza-Rugarli empirical law, referenced in Italian seismic standards (NTC 2008/2018), estimates earthquake magnitude for high-performance scenarios like Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCOE). It correlates required design magnitude (M_design) with M_max, the highest historically or instrumentally recorded magnitude. Although predictive, not absolute, this model guides engineering to prepare for potential events stronger than historical records, particularly for strategic structures.
The law is empirical and incorporates safety margins to address uncertainties in earthquake prediction. Regulations use conservative scenarios (NDSHA) but do not rule out extreme events. Surpassing the M_design threshold indicates the reference model’s limits, reinforcing the need for robust design and safety margins.

This study investigates slope instability in residual and colluvial soils using fieldderived shear strength parameters from the South Pennines, UK. A total of 45 in situ opensided direct shear box tests were conducted across three slope sections (upper 33°, middle 24°, lower 16°), with 15 tests per section under normal stresses ranging from 0 to 20 kN/m². The results show that the upper and middle slopes, composed of coarser materials, yielded higher friction angles (φ′ = 38.5°-42.8°) and low cohesion (c′ = 0-6.5 kPa), whereas the lower slope, dominated by finer soils, exhibited lower friction angles (φ′ = 25.2°-29.4°) and slightly higher cohesion (c′ = 2.0-4.8 kPa). Regression analysis indicates a strong relationship between φ′ and slope angle (R² = 0.76), while c′ shows moderate correlation with vegetation cover (R² = 0.58). Stability modelling using an infinite slope approach produced limiting angles between 17.2° and 22.4°, consistent with observed shallow failures in the field. The findings demonstrate that fieldmeasured shear strength parameters provide a reliable basis for predicting slope instability. This approach captures the effects of soil heterogeneity and vegetation, offering a practical method for slope hazard assessment in similar upland terrains.

This study presents an engineering geological assessment of sandstone formations in the Yazd region of central Iran. A total of 150 rock samples were systematically collected from various outcrops within a defined area near Yazd city. The aim was to investigate the physical and mechanical properties of the sandstones and to analyze correlations between these properties, with particular emphasis on uniaxial compressive strength (UCS). Laboratory testing included measurements of dry and saturated density, porosity, water absorption, and uniaxial compressive strength. The results revealed a significant range in UCS values, reflecting heterogeneity in the geological features of the sandstone units. Correlation analysis was conducted to evaluate relationships between UCS and other physical properties. The findings indicate that UCS is moderately to strongly correlated with porosity (negatively), dry density (positively), and water absorption (negatively). These correlations provide insights into the geomechanical behavior of the local sandstone and support predictive modeling for engineering applications. The outcomes of this study are relevant for geotechnical design and site investigation in central Iran, particularly for infrastructure projects involving excavation, slope stability, and foundation engineering. The research also contributes to a better understanding of the variability in mechanical behavior of sedimentary rocks under arid climatic conditions.

Geohazards, like landslides in soil and rocks which are induced by rainfall, flooding, earthquakes and human activity are dramatically increasing worldwide. Apart from socio-economic factors, like increasing population and concentrations of settlements on endangered areas, extreme weather conditions are the main reasons for this ascent. But, these occurrences are not only concentrated on the high mountain ranges with steep slopes and strong relief. In February 2003, a landslide in the middle of Germany near the village of Wolfstein-Roßbach damaged some houses (one of them totally). Another example is the Manshiet Nasser failure in Cairo in September 2008, where a large rock tilt buried many houses. This few examples show the devastating effect of geohazards in settlement areas and the need for precise monitoring systems to protect human life and property. In the frame of the special program "Geotechnologien" of the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), the joint project "Sensorbased Landslide Early Warning System" (SLEWS) aims at the development of a prototypic Alarm-and Early Warning system (EWS) for different types of landslides using wireless sensor networks (WSN) for real-time monitoring. The WSN consists of a number of so called sensor nodes and a data collect- *

This paper demonstrates the advantages of using inclined stereographic projections in kinematic analysis of rock blocks in discontinuous rock masses. Some examples of limiting cases are presented. The application of inclined projections is illustrated by its use in a mine slope in Brazil. It is clear from the discussion of these examples that inclined hemisphere projections provide better results than horizontal projections. It is also demonstrated that horizontal projections can lead to incorrect results in limiting cases.

This study evaluates the effectiveness of three machine learning models such as Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Logistic Regression (LR), for the classification of fine-grained soils based on index properties. A dataset comprising 1,257 samples was compiled through an extensive literature review. Each sample included key index parameters such as liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), plasticity index (PI), and percentage of fines. The methodology involved preprocessing the data, normalizing features, and dividing the dataset into training (70%) and testing (30%) sets. Models were trained and validated using k-fold cross-validation (k=10), and their performance was assessed using accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, and confusion matrices. The ANN model achieved the highest classification accuracy of 91.6%, followed by SVM at 88.3%, and LR at 84.9%. The mean squared error (MSE) for ANN, SVM, and LR were calculated as 0.078, 0.102, and 0.139, respectively. The ANN model also achieved the highest F1-score (0.92), indicating superior consistency in classification. These results highlight the potential of machine learning models, particularly ANN, for the reliable and automated classification of fine-grained soils using basic index properties.

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ АВТОРА: ОТ СИСТЕМНОГО АНАЛИЗА К ИНЖЕНЕРНОМУ ИНВАРИАНТУ
Многих может удивить переход от фундаментальных вопросов квантовой физики и философии систем к сугубо прикладной теме дорожного строительства. Однако для меня это логическое завершение единого исследовательского цикла.
Философский аспект (UNITAS): Если мир — это упорядоченная система, то любая деструкция (разрушающиеся дороги) — это «грязный код» и энтропийная ошибка. Работа над «Гео-монолитом» — это попытка устранить системный баг в материальной базе нашей цивилизации.
Физический аспект: Изучение инвариантов и структурных связей на микроуровне привело меня к пониманию того, что современные дороги строятся вопреки законам физики. Переход к сероминеральному синтезу — это применение принципов молекулярной сшивки там, где раньше использовалось простое механическое насыпание.
Прагматический выбор: Как инженер с 20-летним стажем, я осознал, что высшая форма интеллектуального суверенитета — это создание Инварианта в железе. Дорога, которая не разрушается 50 лет, — это лучший манифест порядка и победа над хаосом.
Резюме: Данный труд — это «приземление» общей теории систем на реальный грунт. Это доказательство того, что знание законов мироздания позволяет строить вечные дороги там, где классическая наука видит лишь ямы и убытки.

Paper Type: Research Paper Impulsive waves caused by landslides into lakes and dam reservoirs strike the shores and dam bodies as large waves. The most important factor in their generation is the transfer of momentum from the mass to the water, which can cause damage. Therefore, understanding the factors influencing this phenomenon is a constant concern for researchers. In this study, the simultaneous effect of the mechanical and geometrical characteristics of the landslide mass was investigated. The investigations were carried out in two parts. First, a laboratory model was used to generate a wave to verify the performance of the numerical Flow-3D model, and then four variables of material, width, thickness, and impact velocity of the mass in wave generation were investigated numerically. The results showed that by increasing the thickness of the mass by 20%, the wavelength increased by about 25%. The volume of the mass was more effective than the width or thickness variables separately, and a mass with a larger volume generated a larger wave. According to the results, increasing the velocity of the mass led to the production of a larger wave, which was related to the material of the mass. With a 14% increase in impact velocity, a 50% increase in wavelength was created in the rigid mass and a 30% increase in the porous mass, which showed that in the rigid mass, the effect of velocity on the wave magnitude was greater.

The water supply of cities has consistently been a significant concern throughout the Mediterranean region and the Near East. This was also the case in the ancient Amida, which is now known as Diyarbakır. The city is situated on a basaltic plateau 80 m above the Tigris River, which is the most visible source of water in the area. A hydrogeological study was conducted at a regional level, including the analysis of groundwater level, electrical conductivity, and stable isotopes of water. Additionally, historical and archaeological information was examined and correlated. Groundwater is widely available at shallow depths throughout the city. The isotopic composition indicates that groundwater does not originate from local rainfall infiltration; instead it originates from different sources, including a remote area at a higher altitude. The groundwater quality is significantly modified by human activities in the city. The water table has been fluctuating through time, particularly during the most extreme droughts, but accurately documenting this long term history is challenging. This hydrogeological study, conducted using various analytical methods in Diyarbakır, has therefore produced many highly interesting results, opening up new avenues for research, both disciplinary and interdisciplinary.

This study investigates the mechanical behaviour of cemented rock fill and tyre-enhanced cemented rock fill, with the focus on how the particle size distribution influences compressive and tensile strength. Large-scale unconfined compressive strength and direct tensile tests were conducted using natural waste rock sourced from a mining operation. The cemented rock fill samples were modified by incorporating varying contents of shredded waste tyre rubber. Results indicate that increasing rubber content causes decreased compressive strength but enhanced tensile strength. When compared to existing literature, the results from the experiments highlight the influence of particle size distribution on the effectiveness of rubber inclusion in cemented rock fill in mines, particularly the finer fraction. It was observed that a minimum waste rock particle size, d 45 = 20-25 mm is required for consistent improvement in tensile strength. This study offers valuable insights for developing sustainable mining backfills and for optimizing mix designs for optimal mechanical performance.

The Sahinkalesi, a volcanic dome located NNE of Hasandag, Türkiye exhibits anomalous heat flow value, geothermal gradient and the Curie point depth is located at very shallow depth in this region. Our investigation indicates presence of super-critical thermal regime (378 °C) at about 4 km depth and the MT analysis indicate shallow magma chamber at about 5 km depth. The crust is relatively thin below this region with the low-velocity region located at depth of about 36 km. Thermo-Hydro-mechanical model investigation has been carried out using finite element discretization technique. For faulted zone reservoir models, 30 years of geothermal energy exploitation does not cause thermal breakthrough for mass flow rates up to 500 kg/s, however, the mean stress developed in the reservoir becomes much larger and may be unsustainable for the reservoir stability. To ensure the success of a fractured reservoir model, the use of multiple wellbores is recommended. In the case of a closed-loop geothermal system, the primary concern is the control of thermoelastic stress. This can be achieved either by increasing the wellbore depth while reducing the injection mass flow rate, or by extending the wellbore's horizontal component. The outlet temperature in both the cases maintained at 275 °C. This is the first time a superhot EGS site has been identified in Türkiye.

The 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes struck Kumamoto and Ōita regions and caused several devastating liquefaction induced damages. The primary damage was due to the extreme ground shaking of the foreshock and main shock sequence. Therefore, it is essential to develop a quick reliable approach with a high accuracy to assess the ground situation after foreshock or several shocks. Velocity of small shear wave (Vs) was widely used for evaluating the potential liquefaction. This study investigates the possibility of using Vs as a new indicator of the stress state in the soil after earthquake and evaluation of post liquefaction resistance of soil. Cyclic tri-axial apparatus equipped with bender elements were used to conduct two consecutives liquefaction tests on sandy soil. The Vs measured by bender elements was discussed on the relationship with effective stress during the liquefying processes. The results showed that for the sandy soils, a) Vs could not clearly reflect the significant reductio...

A simulation was performed of the flow-geomechanical coupling of problem 1, proposed by Dean et al. (2006) that involved subsidence and compaction drive in a single-phase water reservoir. To solve this problem, FLAC3D 6.0, IMEX 2018 and MATLAB 2018 software were coupled. The simulation was achieved by explicit iterative coupling, where the porous-flow and displacement calculations are performed sequentially. This technique gives a stable approach if there is convergence through established criteria.