Geothermal Energy

The Sciacca basin extends in the southwestern part of Sicily and hosts an important geothermal field (the Sciacca Geothermal Field) characterized by hot springs containing mantle gasses. Newly acquired high-resolution seismic profiles (Boomer data) integrated with a multichannel seismic reflection profile in close proximity to the Sciacca Geothermal Field have documented the presence of numerous active and shallow fluid-related features (pipes, bright spots, buried and outcropping mud volcanoes, zones of acoustic blanking, and seafloor fluid seeps) in the nearshore sector between Capo San Marco and Sciacca (NW Sicilian Channel) and revealed its deep tectonic structure. The Sciacca Geothermal Field and the diffuse submarine fluid-related features probably form a single onshore–offshore field covering an area of at least 70 km2. This field has developed in a tectonically active zone dominated by a left-lateral transpressive regime associated with the lithospheric, NNE-striking Sciacca...

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This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Refermanufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.

This paper examines the emergence of the labor frontier in relation to the nickel resource frontier in Weda, Halmahera, North Maluku. While the creation of extraction zones is notoriously associated with violent processes of displacement, it also requires labor-labor that must be produced and cared for within home communities. This dynamic is evident in the establishment of the nickel industrial park in Weda, which has intensified nickel mining, contributed to the ruination of earlier socio-environmental landscapes, and generated a massive demand for labor. Beneath Weda's changing landscape are young migrant workers from Central Maluku whose lives are intimately shaped by their home communities, the networks that emerge from them, and their own understandings of themselves in relation to-and in contribution to-the people who hold weight in their lives back home. Drawing on long-term ethnographic engagement in Seram, Ambon, and Weda between 2015 and 2025, this paper situates this emerging group of workers within the historical transformations of livelihoods in Central Maluku and its rural communities. By drawing on social reproduction theory, which foregrounds the relational processes through which labor is produced, the paper unpacks how labor frontiers function as circuits of carework whose uncommodified nature allows for profitable extraction zones to be established, thereby unraveling the often-overlooked social dimension of frontierization.

For the promising population, the growing demand of energy has delicate the requirement of alternative sources of energies other than fossil fuels. Though renewable energy resources like solar, biomass, hydro and geothermal energy appear as environment friendly, replenishing sources of energy, a comprehensive solution appears far-fetched as far as large scale production and wide-spread dissemination is concerned when long term cost factors are taken into consideration. The unwavering boost of population and ongoing depletion of fossil fuels and have further exacerbated the energy crisis. In this paper, discussions on the limitations of conventional and renewable sources of energy compared to advanced fourth generation nuclear power on the basis of environmental contamination, energy security, cost of fossil fuels and electricity generation and have philosophy to the prospects of nuclear power as the ultimate future energy option for the developing countries are done. Environmental issues, long term cost factors , radiation hazard and safety concerns have been considered with respect to the generation of electricity using advanced third Generation nuclear power. This study proposes that gen-4 nuclear appears to be a long term environment favorable panacea to the much discoursed problem of energy crisis by maintaining energy security and long term cost concern in developing countries as well as in the whole world.

The article presents an assessment of the potential for using low temperature geothermal water from the C-PIG-1 well (Małopolskie Voivodship, southern Poland) for electricity generation, as the first stage in a geothermal cascade system. The C-PIG-1 well is characterised by a temperature of geothermal water of 82 °C and a maximum flow rate of 51.22 kg/s. Geothermal water is currently only utilised for recreation purposes in swimming pools. In such locations, with the potential to use renewable energy for energetic purposes, the possibility of comprehensive management of the geothermal waters extracted should be considered both in the first stage of the cascade and after recreational use. Thermodynamic calculations were conducted assuming the use of the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) or Kalina Cycle. Two variants were analysed—the use of the maximum flow rate of geothermal waters and partial use with an assumption of a priority for recreational/heating purposes. The analysis and calcula...

Organic Rankine cycle an alternative way of generating energy from waste heat, fuel and gases at low-temperature. Method (ORC) proved successful and high efficiency to reduce environmental pollution, fuel consumption and convert low to medium heat sources. The paper will be presenting a review investigation on the organic Rankine cycle(ORC), cycle Background, (ORC) configuration, and selecting of working fluids and experimental studied of expansion apparatuses, which are classified into two type volumetric type such as (expander of rotary vane, scroll, reciprocating piston expander and screw) velocity kind (for example axial and radial turbine). Heat exchanger and expander apparatuses are considered economically expensive parts in (ORC).

The Nesjavellir geothermal system in southern Iceland is very complex from both a thermal and hydrologic point of view. There are large pressure and temperature gradients in the wellfield and zones with drastically different pressure potentials. Thus, natural fluid flow is substantial in the system and flow patterns are complex. We have developed a twedimensional natural state model for the Nesjavellir system that matches reasonably well the observed pressure and temperature distributions. T h e match with field d a t a has allowed determination of the energy recharge to the system and the permeability distribution. Fluids recharge the system at rate of 0.02 kg/s/m with an enthalpy of 1460 kJ/kg. T h e permeability in the main reservoir is estimated to be in the range of 1.5 to 2.0 md, which agrees well with injection test results from individual wells. Permeabilities in shallower reservoirs are about an order of magnitude higher. Most of the main reservoir is under twephase conditions, as are shallow aquifers in the southern part of the field. T h e model results also suggest that the low temperatures in the shallow part of the northern region of the field may be due to the young age of the system; Le., the system is gradually heating up. If this is the case the estimated age of the system near the wellfield is on the order of a few thousand years.

Uplift and collapse of segments of the earth's oceanic crust can explain many of the data reported by oceanographers during the post 15 years. Common engineering principles can explain the major oceanic features as the results of uplift, cooling, and collapse of the crust caused by heat, gravity, and isostatic response. The double island arc forms as the result of uplift of a cylindrical expanding body of hot rock materials, which assumes a domal shape as it moves upword and becomes molten. The flanks of the uplift collapse downward and inward to form a subduction (Benioff) zone. The crest of the uplift faults, extrudes basalt, and collapses into a median basin which separates two parallel fold belts. The single island-ore system, although more curved, is similar to the double island-arc system. During uplift of the osthenolith, compression is generated on the concave side and tension on the convex side. The uplift is asymmetric away from the compressional forces. A subduction (Benioff) zone forms on one side only. During collapse the uplift falls into an asymmetric fold belt. Magnetic anomalies can be explained by constant cooling of iron-rich crustal materials. A heated body cools from the outer edges inward. As the distended crust collapses, it folds first on the outer flanks of the uplift and then sequentially inward. The materials become progressively magnetized as they cool below the Curie point from the outer flanks inward. A succession of symmetrical younger magnetic anomalies is formed around the center of the collapsing heol-exponsion event. The unique median nature of the oceanic ridge and rise systems con be explained as the result of uplift and collapse of existing parallel belts which stress the crust in such a way as to weaken it at the midpoints to create a line of weakness. These median lines can serve as the preferential locale for future uplift formed as the result of isostatic adjustment as the earlier belts cool and collapse. The belts retain a certain amount of parallelism which conceivably explains the apparent "close fit" of some continental margins which are also old erogenic bells. There are fundamental differences between orogeny of the sea floor and its continental counterpart. Sea level con be displaced by oceanic orogenic activity on a worldwide scale. There should be a measurable relation between periods of uplift and orogeny at sea and transgressions of the seas across the continental shelves. Alternate explanations for the oceanographic data ore just as logical as those advanced in the "new global tectonics" and are far more conservative of energy required to do the work. No additional hypotheses such as "convection cells, drift, etc." are needed.

Questo volume raccoglie gli appunti della parte di scambio termico del corso di Termofluidodinamica del Corso di Laurea in Ingegneria Energetica del Politecnico di Torino, anno accademico 2025–2026. Il testo segue l’impostazione delle lezioni e utilizza come riferimento principale il manuale di Incropera, sviluppando in modo progressivo i fondamenti della trasmissione del calore: distinzione tra energia interna, temperatura, calore, potenza termica e flusso termico; modalità fondamentali di scambio termico; legge di Newton della convezione; bilanci energetici; strati limite cinematici e termici; similitudine e numeri adimensionali; convezione forzata esterna su lastra piana, cilindri, sfere, banchi di tubi, getti e mezzi porosi; deflussi interni; convezione libera; introduzione ai fluidi bifase e ai principali parametri dei deflussi liquido-vapore.

L’obiettivo degli appunti è fornire uno strumento di studio ordinato e operativo, capace di collegare la descrizione fisica dei fenomeni con le formule utilizzate negli esercizi. Particolare attenzione è dedicata al significato dei coefficienti di scambio, alla scelta delle correlazioni, all’interpretazione dei numeri adimensionali e all’impostazione corretta dei bilanci energetici. Il materiale è stato redatto da uno studente e non costituisce una dispensa ufficiale del docente o del corso.

The present study investigates the gasification of saw dust in a bubbling fluidized bed with air and steam as a fluidizing and gasifying agent. The gasifier used for this study was 108 mm i.d. and 1400 mm high, and it was fed with saw dust at a flow rates of 5-10 kg/h. Experiments were carried out in a temperature range of 650-900 C (50 C intervals) with steam to biomass ratio (S/B) of 0 to 1. The behaviors of saw dust under the various parameters were studied and the optimum values were obtained. The work included the parametric study of the effects of reactor temperature, S/B ratio on gas composition, gas yield, low heating value (LHV), and carbon conversion effciency. It has been observed that the gas yields and the content of H 2 in the gas increase with reactor temperature, while the yields of CO and CH 4 in the product gas decrease. The experimental results showed that the fluidized bed gasification of saw dust produces gas with the maximum LHV obtained was 8100 kJ/Nm 3 at 800 C and the maximum carbon conversion efficiency was 85% at 850 C.

This paper details a five-phase linear workflow to develop a geothermal greenfield power project
from an initial conceptualization phase, through multiple exploration phases, a confirmation phase,
and ending with the completion of a geothermal field development. The purpose is to provide
investors and stakeholders with a critical path for multiple project scenarios, allowing
transparency, highlighting risk management, and creating decision-making tools. Each of the five
phases has key inputs, processes, results, and decision points. This workflow is compatible with
current risk mitigation funding strategies and is suitable for non-greenfield scenarios such as O&G
(Oil and Gas) transitioning to geothermal energy, or existing fields seeking expansion.

This study compares the thermo-economic and environmental performance of eco-friendly fluids in various Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) configurations for waste heat recovery. Three working fluids carbon dioxide (CO2), isobutane, and a zeotropic mixture were analyzed under regenerative, transcritical, and dual-loop ORC configurations using a MATLAB-based simulation framework. Thermodynamic performance was evaluated over an evaporator temperature range of 80-160°C. Results showed that thermal efficiency increased with temperature for all fluids, with CO2 ranging from 0.50% to 0.80%, isobutane 0.54% to 0.82%, and the zeotropic mixture achieving the highest values of 0.58% to 0.84%. Similarly, exergy efficiency varied between 2.60%-3.30% for CO2, Isobutane: 2.64%-3.70%, and 2.62%-3.41% for the mixture, indicating reduced irreversibility for the mixture. Net power output reflects same, with values of CO2: 20-90 kW, Isobutane: 25-112 kW, Mixture: 60-220 kW. Economic analysis revealed that the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) decreased with increasing performance, ranging from $0.

Characterizing geologic formations near a borehole is critically important for the energy and environmental industry. Better understanding anisotropic properties of subsurface formations in a geothermal field is essential for effective fracture stimulation to extract geothermal energy from enhanced geothermal systems. We apply a shear-wave splitting analysis method, based on eigenvector rotation, to six induced micro-earthquakes recorded using a 3component geophone array deployed in a borehole at the Utah FORGE (Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy) site. We determine that the faster S 1wave is along the radial direction at about an azimuth of E12.7 o S, while the slower S 2 -wave is in the tangential direction perpendicular to that of S 1 -wave. This radial direction is consistent with major-semi axis orientation of induced micro-earthquake distribution. The averaged Swave splitting rate (SSR) is 0.83%, indicating the average S 1 -wave velocity is faster than that of S 2 -wave by 0.83%. Average SSR values for receivers in the sedimentary and granite rocks are 0.91% and 0.72%, respectively, implying that the natural fracture density in the sedimentary rock is higher than that in the granite rocks. We can apply the shear-wave splitting analysis method to induced microearthquake data during fracture stimulation for time-lapse monitoring of EGS reservoirs.

Kenya's electricity rationing in 2026 has highlighted a critical structural challenge within the country's rapidly evolving renewable energy sector. While Kenya has successfully expanded its renewable energy portfolio through geothermal, wind, and solar investments, the increasing penetration of intermittent generation sources without corresponding battery storage capacity has exposed grid stability vulnerabilities. This paper examines the underlying causes of Kenya's recent power supply shortages, the role of battery energy storage systems (BESS) in stabilizing renewable-powered grids, and the policy and investment implications for Kenya's long-term energy security.

The realization of major mining projects, such as the "Jadar" project and mining operations in other parts of western and eastern Serbia, is not merely a matter of technical and environmental planning. It also involves long-term sociodemographic and economic processes. An analysis of the past 15 years reveals systemic factors that, whether by design or consequence, have created favorable conditions for transitioning local lands into active mining zones.

In recent years, global crises, geopolitical conflicts, and climate change have brought food security to the forefront of the macroeconomic agenda and necessitated a transition to technology-intensive agricultural systems. This study presents a comprehensive techno-economic evaluation of soilless greenhouse clusters, drawing on a nationwide empirical case study of the Geothermal GOAZ (Greenhouse Organized Agricultural Zone) model in Turkiye. The analysis examines in detail the cost-reducing effect of centralized geothermal heating, its capacity to make agricultural production independent of fossil-fuel price shocks, and the stability of market supply dynamics in the context of the Cobweb Theorem. Additionally, this framework evaluates the integration of industrial symbiosis, Public-Private Partnership (PPP) governance, and the structural alignment between the EU Green Deal and the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). Statistical regression models empirically demonstrate the project’s high financial predictability and confirm that spatial clustering meticulously optimizes capital expenditures (CAPEX) through economies of scale. The study also highlights the model’s strong Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) performance, particularly in generating zero-emission carbon credits and promoting rural employment that supports gender equality. In conclusion, the Geothermal GOAZ model offers a mathematically validated, financially reliable, and scalable framework for sustainable agriculture. Furthermore, by integrating shallow geothermal heat pump technologies into the model, this central clustering model becomes globally applicable across all geographic and climatic conditions, including regions without hydrothermal resources.

Keywords: geothermal greenhouse, Geothermal GOAZ (Greenhouse Organized Agricultural Zone), agro-industrial clustering, Public-Private Partnership (PPP), ESG metrics, industrial symbiosis, carbon credit, climate-smart agriculture

A study of employment effects from prospective geothermal development in Imperial County is based on regression analysis of Census enumeration district data. The study reveals potential for reduction of broad age-structural unemployment through a more favorable age structure accompanying reduced fertility, increased labor force participation through greater income, and reduced unemployment through greater income and less poverty.

Although Turkey is not the biggest GHG polluter, its emissions have increased by 110.4 % since 1990. Currently, its CO 2 emissions alone have crossed 400 Mt. Within the scope of 2 °C targets (2D scenario), the country can easily surpass this target test by increasing its renewable energy sources as a primary energy source mix, by developing its Enhanced Geothermal Sources (EGS) locked up in the radiogenic granites of western Anatolia. The radiogenic heat generated by these granites, spread over an area of 4221 sq. km, varies from 5.3 to 16.34 µW/m 3 . Based on the electricity generation capacity of granites from Soultz-sous-Forets and Cooper Basin EGS sites, the combined electricity generation capacity of Kestanbol and Kozak granite plutons is about 830 billion kWh. For the period extending from 2019 to 2023, Turkey is aiming at reducing the usage of gas for electricity generation from 29.9 to 20.7%, increasing the share of renewable energy sources from 32.5 to 38.8%, increasing the...

Land use and land cover (LULC) change alters ecosystem processes by modifying vegetation structure, surface energy balance, and land surface temperature (LST). While numerous studies have examined LULC-LST relationships, few have integrated long-term LULC transitions; Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) based vegetation dynamics, and seasonal LST responses within semi-arid Rift Valley catchments under consistent phenological conditions. This study addresses this gap by analyzing the spatiotemporal interactions between LULC dynamics, vegetation density, and LST in the Lake Abaya catchments, Southern Main Ethiopian Rift, using multi-temporal Landsat imagery from 1986 (TM), 2003 (ETM+), and 2019 (OLI/TIRS). Supervised maximum likelihood classification was applied and validated using ground control points, while NDVI and LST were derived to quantify vegetation and thermal responses. LULC transition matrices were used to explicitly trace land cover conversions and their thermal consequences, and NDVI-LST relationships were examined using regression analysis. Results reveal substantial landscape transformation, with forest cover declining from 35.1% to 25.7% and agricultural land expanding from 15.6% to 26.2%, primarily at the expense of forest and rangeland. Bare and degraded lands consistently exhibited the highest LST, whereas forest and water bodies showed pronounced cooling effects. A strong and statistically significant inverse NDVI-LST relationship confirms vegetation's role in regulating surface energy balance. By linking long-term LULC transitions with seasonally comparable thermal responses, this study provides new empirical evidence on how land degradation and agricultural expansion reshape microclimate regulation in Rift Valley catchments. The findings offer actionable insights for climate-adaptive land-use planning, catchments management, and ecological restoration in data-scarce semiarid regions.

Increasing demand in carbon dioxide storage volumes to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2050 implies assessment of CO 2 storage capacity, including deep saline aquifers, even in tight sandstone reservoirs. 3D reservoir simulations of supercritical CO 2 injection were carried out in the Lower Paleozoic Potsdam Sandstone of the St Lawrence Platform (Gentilly Block), Quebec to predict safe CO 2 injection rates, evaluate reservoir pressure build-up in the presence of sealing and permeable faults, and estimate the gas injection cumulative. 3D one-way coupled reservoir-geomechanical modelling helped to analyse the interaction between reservoir pressure build-up and changes in in situ stresses, and estimate the risk of top and bottom seal failure and fault shear-slip reactivation. It is shown that a safe CO 2 injection rate per well for 20 years of continuous injection is estimated to range from 0.7 kg s-1 (22.1 kt a-1) to 10 kg s-1 (315.4 kt a-1) depending on the porosity and permeability of the Potsdam Sandstone varying from core-derived matrix values to 'fracture-enhanced' values. The corresponding injection CO 2 cumulative for 20 years ranges from 432.2 to 6013.5 kt per well. The implementation of a multiple-well injection plan will help to increase the injection CO 2 cumulative, given the considerable thickness and basin-scale dimensions of the Potsdam reservoir (3440 km 3).

The limitations of historical deep drilling projects, such as the Kola Superdeep Borehole, stem from catastrophic thermal stress and lithostatic pressure closing the shaft. This paper presents an alternative framework utilizing strategic hyper-glacial placement, continuous polar wind capture, a dual-dome atmospheric isolation design, a cryogenic fluid-pneumatic loop, active geothermal energy conversion, and an advanced four-layered lightweight composite protective shield to achieve unprecedented depths.

Geothermal exploration in El Salvador started during the 50’s with the technical and financial assistance from UNDP to carry out the exploratory work in areas with geothermal interest. Foreign assistance aimed to train geothermal scientists in El Salvador has contributed to a better prospective of energy scenario. The development of Ahuachapan and Berlin projects provided a training ground for exploration and reservoir management, considering the different situations such as political, oil crisis, economic and technical issues. The inclusion of foreign investors to the electrical sector, establishing a partnership agreement, gave way to more geothermal exploration, development and electricity production to upgrade the geothermal technology and increase the participation to international and national electrical market.

This article presents a comprehensive review of recent research on renewable-driven multigeneration systems using integrated 3E (Energy, Exergy, Environment) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) frameworks. The proposed integration provides a comprehensive understanding of a system's performance, identifying potential hotspots, optimizing resource utilization, and ultimately driving the development of more environmentally friendly energy solutions. The manuscript reviews the system's energy potentials (both inputs and outputs) with an emphasis on total energy efficiency and identifying areas of energy loss. The exergy analysis evaluates energy quality by measuring thermodynamic losses and irreversibility. A cost-benefit analysis is also performed to analyze the economic sustainability of the multigenerational system (MGS). The LCA provides environmental impact indicators. The innovative multigeneration systems are intended to generate many useful outputs (power, heat, hydrogen, and cooling) from renewable resources like solar or biomass. The study provides data for making educated decisions on system design, technology selection, and process optimization that fit with environmental goals and economic feasibility. The MGS improves energy and exergy efficiency by manufacturing many products at the same time, resulting in less waste and greater utilization of primary resources. Using renewable resources and producing diverse products significantly reduces carbon footprints and greenhouse gas emissions, encouraging environmental conservation and sustainability. Instead of proposing a new optimization strategy, this review synthesizes existing multi-objective optimization approaches applied to renewabledriven multigeneration systems and critically discusses the trade-offs among energy, exergy, economic, and environmental objectives within integrated 3E-LCA frameworks.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET 1. NMEMNRD REPORT NO. 2. PUBLICATION DATE 3. NO. OF PAGES Southern New Mexico Low-Temp.erature Geothermal Resource An economic evaluation of three low-temperature geothermal sites in New Mexico has been performed. designed to supply sufficient energy to satisfy thermal loads for one, four, ten, and fifteen acre commercial greenhouses. evaluated to identify the important infrastructure requirements. and operating costs were estimated. Annual levelized costs were calculated for the provision of hot water and fresh water for each site. costs were compared with annual levelized costs for a natural gas system tc supply the equivalent thermal load. Calculated results indicate that geothermal systems may be competitive with natural gas for larger installations. geothermal system because the initial capital costs are not recovered with A hypothetical geothermal system was Geothermal sites were Capital It is not economically attractive to develop a small reduced operating costs, relative to natural gas. 8 .

Water plays a vital role in meeting fundamental human needs for life and health, as well as supporting social and economic development. However, about 97.5% of the Earth's water is found in the oceans and is unsuitable for drinking, agriculture, and most industrial applications. Desalination has therefore become one of the most important technologies for converting saline water into freshwater. This study presents a comparative techno-economic assessment of photovoltaic (PV) and several concentrated solar power (CSP) technologies, including solar tower, parabolic trough, and linear Fresnel systems, for seawater desalination. Each solar configuration is modeled and simulated using the System Advisor Model (SAM) to supply the electrical energy required by a reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant. The performance of the proposed systems is evaluated based on key economic indicators, with particular emphasis on the levelized cost of water (LCOW). The results show that the PV-based system provides the lowest-cost option for supplying electricity to the RO process, making it the most economically attractive solution for solar-driven desalination among the technologies considered.

Condenser vacuum (V) is a critical operational parameter that determines the expansion ratio and exhaust pressure of steam turbines, thereby directly affecting power generation and cycle efficiency in Combined Cycle Power Plants (CCPPs). Under real operating conditions, vacuum performance varies due to the nonlinear interaction of cooling technology, ambient conditions, and equipment aging. Since this complex structure cannot be adequately represented with sufficient accuracy by conventional analytical methods, this study investigates the relationship between condenser vacuum and Steam Turbine Power Output (STPO) using artificial intelligence based, data driven modeling approaches. High resolution operational data from two large-scale CCPPs, one dry cooled and one wet cooled, were evaluated. The developed model achieved high prediction accuracy for both configurations, yielding an Coefficient of Determination (R²) of 0.954 and an Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 0.93 MW for the dry cooled plant, and an R² of 0.959 and an MAE of 0.74 MW for the wet cooled plant. In addition, an artificial intelligence based early warning window was developed to identify equipment related losses in the vacuum system independently of environmental effects. In this approach, the reference vacuum value predicted by the AI model under equivalent environmental conditions is continuously compared with the real time measured vacuum value, enabling early detection of abnormal vacuum deviations caused by condenser fouling, air ingress, and cooling-side performance deterioration. The results indicate that a deterioration of 0.01 bar a in V leads to an average STPO loss of approximately 2.56 MW and 4.25 MW in the dry and wet cooled plants, respectively. In the dry cooled plant, the reduction in steam turbine generation capacity associated with vacuum degradation reaches up to 12.8%, whereas in the wet-cooled system this reduction remains limited to approximately 4%, indicating a more stable performance.

A network numerical simulator is developed and described to simulate the transient, nonlinear buoyancy-driven double diffusive heat and mass transfer of a viscous, incompressible, gray, absorbing-emitting fluid flowing past an impulsively started moving vertical plate adjacent to a non-Darcian geological porous regime. The governing boundary-layer equations are formulated in an (X * , Y * , t * ) coordinate system with appropriate boundary conditions. An algebraic diffusion approximation is used to simplify the radiation heat transfer contribution. The non-dimensionalized transport equations are solved in an (X, Y, t) coordinate system using the network simulation model (NSM) and the computer code, Pspice. A detailed discussion of the network design is provided. The effects of Prandtl number, radiation-conduction parameter (Stark number), thermal Grashof number, species Grashof number, Schmidt number, Darcy number and Forchheimer number on the transient dimensionless velocities (U, V ), non-dimensional temperature (T ) and dimensionless concentration function (C) are illustrated graphically. Additionally, we have computed plots of U, V, T, C versus time and average Nusselt number and Sherwood number versus X, Y coordinate, for various thermophysical parameters. The model finds applications in geological contamination, geothermal energy systems and radioactive wasterepository near-field thermo-geofluid mechanics.

(IEA) studies on concentrated solar power and long-duration energy storage. 2. Research literature on molten salt thermal storage systems and Power-to-Heat integration. 3. Renewable dispatchability studies involving hybrid PV-CSP infrastructure and grid balancing. 4. Engineering analyses on thermal storage optimization, steam-cycle efficiency, and solar hybridization systems.

An explanation is presented of the dynamic instability that afflicts present-day power systems. Tensor analysis is used to compute the components of torque generated in various windings and the controller of a synchronous generator. The identification of the source of the instability is utilized to design a stabilizer which ensures stable operation at all operating conditions

CCS CO2 capture and geologic storage DOE U.S. Department of Energy EIA Energy Information Administration FGD Flue gas desulfurization LCOE levelized cost of electricity MEA monoethanolamine (considered the standard amine-based CO2 scrubbing technology)

The growing demand for clean, reliable, and sustainable energy systems has intensified the search for alternative pathways for hydrogen production. This study presents a comprehensive review and simplified framework for geothermal-based integrated systems that combine energy generation, desalination, and electrolysis for green hydrogen production. The proposed approach leverages the continuous and stable nature of geothermal energy, utilizing Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems for efficient power generation to drive downstream processes. The integration of reverse osmosis desalination ensures a consistent supply of purified water, while proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers enable efficient hydrogen generation. To address the complexity of multi-component system interactions, a simulation-based methodology is adopted to evaluate the influence of key operational parameters on system performance. Furthermore, data-driven modeling techniques are incorporated to accurately predict system behavior while reducing computational burden. Advanced optimization strategies are employed to identify optimal operating conditions that enhance hydrogen yield, improve energy efficiency, and ensure economic feasibility. The findings demonstrate that geothermal-based integrated systems offer a reliable and sustainable solution for continuous hydrogen production. The study highlights the potential of combining renewable energy resources with intelligent modeling and optimization techniques, providing a scalable pathway toward future clean energy systems.

Designing an onshore exploration campaign with a constrained budget-A practical framework for designing a $100M exploration campaign in highuncertainty basins. This paper presents a decision-driven approach to maximize discovery probability through risk-based portfolio design, phased capital allocation, and targeted data acquisition. It reframes exploration success as the quality of decisions under uncertainty, rather than the scale of investment or data.

Libya has strong solar resources and promising site-specific wind potential, yet this potential has not been translated into deployable, reliable, and financeable renewable-energy projects. A major reason is that the Libyafocused literature remains fragmented and often not decision-ready, with inconsistent techno-economic assumptions, limited local validation, and insufficient treatment of uncertainty, grid integration, and financing risk. To address this gap, this study conducts a systematic review of renewable-energy research on Libya using a PRISMA-guided screening process and a three-layer synthesis framework that distinguishes resource potential, conversion performance, and implementability under grid, reliability, and financing constraints. Across the reviewed studies, reported levelized cost of energy ranges from about 0.014-0.335 USD/kWh depending on technology, location, and modeling assumptions. Solar PV is most frequently identified as the near-term leastcost option under comparable assumptions, while wind competitiveness appears to be more site-specific. CSP and hybrid systems may offer higher system value in scenarios where dispatchability and reliability requirements are explicitly considered. The review suggests that cost variability is driven at least as much by assumptions related to financing terms, degradation and loss treatment, replacement schedules, and the representation of curtailment and grid constraints as by differences in the underlying resources themselves. Overall, the study provides an implementation-oriented synthesis to support more credible renewable-energy planning and investment decisions in Libya.

This paper presents a review of the worldwide applications of geothermal energy for direct utilization and updates the previous survey carried out in 2015. We also compare data from WGC1995, WGC2000, WGC2005, WGC2010, and WGC2015 presented at World Geothermal Congresses in Italy, Japan, Turkey, Indonesia and Australia. As in previous reports, an effort is made to quantify geothermal (ground-source) heat pump data. The present report is based on country update papers received from 62 countries and regions reporting on their direct utilization of geothermal energy. Twenty-six additional countries were added to the list based on other sources of information. Thus, direct utilization of geothermal energy in a total of 88 countries is an increase from 82 in 2015, 78 reported in 2010, 72 reported in 2005, 58 reported in 2000, and 28 reported in 1995. An estimation of the installed thermal power for direct utilization at the end of 2019 is used in this paper and equals 107,727 MWt, a 52.0% increase over the 2015 data, growing at a compound rate of 8.73% annually. The thermal energy used is 1,020,887 TJ/yr (283,580 GWh/yr.), a 72.3% increase over 2015, growing at a compound rate of 11.5% annually. The distribution of thermal energy used by category is approximately 58.8% for geothermal (ground-source) heat pumps, 18.0% for bathing and swimming (including balneology), 16.0% for space heating (of which 91.0% is for district heating), 3.5% for greenhouse heating, 1.6% for industrial applications, 1.3% for aquaculture pond and raceway heating, 0.4% for agricultural drying, 0.2% for snow melting and cooling, and 0.2% for other applications. Energy savings amounts to 596 million barrels (81.0 million tonnes) of equivalent oil annually, preventing 78.1 million tonnes of carbon and 252.6 million tonnes of CO2 from being released to the atmosphere. This includes savings for geothermal heat pumps in the cooling mode, compared to using fuel oil to generate electricity. Since it is almost impossible to separate direct-use from electric power generation for the following, they are combined: approximately 2,647 wells were drilled in 42 countries, 34,500 person-years of effort were allocated in 59 countries, and US $22.262 billion invested in projects by 53 countries. Direct utilization (direct-use) of geothermal energy is one of the oldest, most versatile and most common forms of utilizing geothermal energy (Dickson and Fanelli, 2003). The early history of geothermal direct-use has been reviewed for over 25 countries in the Stories from a Heated Earth -Our Geothermal Heritage , which documents geothermal use for over 2,000 years. The information presented here on direct applications of geothermal heat is based on country update papers submitted to the World Geothermal Congress 2020 (WGC2020), published in the proceedings and covers the period 2015-2019. We solicited papers from 113 countries and regions, of which 62 reported having geothermal uses, with 26 countries added from other sources, such as from other World Geothermal Congresses and personal communications--for a total of 88 countries, an increase of 6 countries from WGC2015. Other countries were also contacted, but unfortunately did not respond or are only exploring for geothermal and have not developed any utilization as of 2019: Bangladesh,

This paper explores the potential for biomass energy in Turkey by focusing on forest residue as an energy feedstock. Wood residue is a convenient, physically well-understood feedstock. It has been the focus of many recent biomass studies and feasibility assessments due to increasing forest management and wildfire prevention activities. General Directory of Forestry (GDF) has a task on reducing hazardous fuels loading within the forests. It has been planned to convert these forest residues into heat and power in rural areas. The aims of Bioenergy Action Program in GDF are to encourage increased production and/or use of energy derived from woody biomass resources, to disseminate information, to establish and spread small scale power generators which use wood in rural areas.

The study of the effect of evaporation pressure on the performance of a closed cycle OTEC used for electricity in Nigeria has been performed. Fundamental thermodynamic principles will undergird the governing equations, with detailed analyses performed using advanced simulation software tools like ASPEN HYSYS and MATLAB was employed. The simulations were performed using MATLAB v8.5a and Aspen Hysys v11 software, employing various input conditions such as sea surface water temperatures, pressures, mass flow rates, cooling water temperatures, and pressures. It was observed that as the evaporation pressure increases from 800 KPa to 1000 KPa: in the Hysys simulation, the net power output increases from 14.88 KW to 28.76 KW, while in the MATLAB simulation, it increases from 15.08 kW to 28.93 kW; The efficiency increases from 39.15% to 40.02% in the Hysys simulation and from 39.16% to 40.03% in the MATLAB simulation and the evaporator heat duty also increases, from 1133 kW to 1173 kW in the Hysys simulation and from 1134 KW to 1175 KW in the MATLAB simulation. It is recommended that the evaporation pressure should be allowed to rise up to 1000KPa for optimum performance since better cycle efficiency and net power output is achieved at higher evaporation pressure.

This systematic review evaluates the feasibility and outcomes of social enterprise models in Kenyan health systems as mechanisms to enhance financial sustainability by combining social missions with revenue generation. A comprehensive search of databases and grey literature focusing on Kenya and similar settings was conducted. Two independent reviewers screened and extracted data on regulatory, governance, infrastructure, stakeholder, and economic factors, resolving discrepancies by consensus. Methodological quality was assessed using standardized tools, and findings were synthesized narratively following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, informed by resource dependence and institutional theory within a social enterprise framework. The results show that implementing social enterprises in Kenya is feasible but depends on enabling institutional environments. Fragmented policies limit operational flexibility, and infrastructural deficits restrict scalability, with only 58% of facilities supporting innovative financing. Weak governance affects strategic coherence, with approximately 40% of enterprises struggling to maintain direction. Economic volatility, including 5.7% annual inflation, threatens revenue stability. Reported benefits include improved

La Fisica Terrestre, o Geofisica, indaga i fenomeni fisici che interessano l'atmosfera, la superficie e le profondità del nostro pianeta. Tradizionalmente, la disciplina si suddivide in tre branche principali dedicate, rispe vamente, alla componente solida, a quella liquida (idrosfera) e a quella aeriforme (atmosfera). Il presente volume approfondisce temi di rilievo trasversali a tali ambi . In par colare, dopo una sintesi sull'origine e l'evoluzione della Terra -che spazia dalla nebulosa protoplanetaria alla teoria della te onica globale -vengono presentate le flu uazioni dell'asse di rotazione, la gravità e la forma del geoide, le condizioni di equilibrio isosta co della litosfera e le maree. Dopo l'analisi della propagazione delle onde sismiche, intesa come strumento per la modellizzazione della stru ura interna del Terra, vengono esamina il meccanismo focale dei terremo , le scale di magnitudo e intensità, nonché i criteri di zonazione sismica del territorio nazionale, dedicando par colare a enzione allo studio dei fenomeni precursori quale fondamento per la previsione probabilis ca. L'esame prosegue con il flusso geotermico, il calore radiogenico e lo stato termico interno, valutando il calore come risorsa energe ca rinnovabile, e con i processi di magne zzazione dei materiali a scala microscopica, u li per la comprensione del campo geomagne co inteso come fenomeno dinamico globale. In questo contesto, il paleomagnesmo è uno strumento essenziale per decifrare il segnale magne co delle rocce e ricostruire la deriva delle placche litosferiche. Un ampio capitolo riguarda l'ambiente superficiale, fulcro degli scambi fisici che regolano i sistemi ambientali e il clima. A raverso lo studio delle proprietà dell'acqua marina, delle corren e del moto ondoso, viene delineata la dinamica delle masse oceaniche; segue l'esame della stru ura e della circolazione della troposfera, con par colare riferimento alla genesi dei cicloni nell'emisfero se entrionale. La disamina si completa con l'interpretazione di parametri meteorologici, carte sino che e immagini satellitari, concludendosi con la classificazione dei climi e l'analisi delle variazioni storiche e recen . Una parte specifica è dedicata all'esame della radiazione solare quale fonte energe ca primaria. La conoscenza degli argomen tra a in questo volume cos tuisce il bagaglio culturale imprescindibile per il futuro laureato, fornendo le competenze tecniche necessarie per operare nella tutela del patrimonio ambientale, prevedere le catastrofi naturali e svolgere un'efficace a vità di divulgazione scien fica. Vincenzo Pasquale iniziò il suo percorso scien fico nel 1970 come ricercatore presso l'Is tuto Geofisico e Geode co dell'Università di Genova, so o la guida del Prof. Mario Bossolasco. Dal 1980, in qualità di Professore di Fisica della Terra, fece parte del collegio dei docen del Do orato di Ricerca in Scienze della Terra, partecipò a diverse associazioni scien fiche internazionali e ricoprì il ruolo di Responsabile Scien fico in proge di ricerca di rilevanza nazionale. Concluse la sua a vità di ricerca nel 2020. La sua a vità di ricerca, ampiamente documentata in riviste e a di convegno, affrontò temi innova vi di cara ere internazionale. Tra le sue opere più significa ve figurano il volume Geothermics: Heat Flow in the Lithosphere (Springer, 2017), scri o con i coautori M. Verdoya e P. Chiozzi, che sinte zza gran parte della sua ricerca teorica e applicata sulla fisica del calore terrestre, e i tes Geofisica e Fisica Terrestre, reda per supportare gli studen del suo corso di insegnamento in Fisica Terrestre presso l'Università di Genova. Contribuì, inoltre, alle edizioni 2011 e 2020 della Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics (Springer). Dopo un decennio dedicato alla sismologia e alle energie rinnovabili, la sua a enzione si focalizzò sulle condizioni termiche e reologiche della litosfera, indagando le connessioni tra regime sismote onico, anomalie geomagne che e stru ura termica. Modellò la transizione fragile-du le della litosfera, definendo le profondità oltre le quali non si generano i terremo e inizia lo scorrimento plas co a causa dell'aumento di temperatura. Sviluppò e perfezionò modelli anali ci per separare il calore avve vo trasportato nelle falde acquifere da quello puramente condu vo del so osuolo. U lizzò i da di temperatura subsuperficiali per la ricostruzione dei cambiamen clima ci del passato, fornendo prove indipenden del riscaldamento clima co recente. Fondò il Laboratorio di Geofisica Sperimentale e Radiometria, dove proge ò strumen per l'analisi delle proprietà termiche, del calore radiogenico dei materiali rocciosi e dell'impa o della radioa vità naturale sull'ambiente. 145 201 252 Paleozoico Permiano Carbonifero Devoniano Siluriano Ordoviciano Cambriano Prime conifere, sviluppo rettili, formazione del Pangea Grandi foreste, primi rettili, insetti alati Sviluppo di pesci, comparsa anfibi, felci e conifere Primi animali che respirano aria, prime piante Primi vertebrati Invertebrati marini forniti di guscio 299 359 419 444 485 541 Precambriano Proterozoico Archeozoico Evoluzione degli invertebrati, produzione di ossigeno Prime rocce, sviluppo oceani, probabili organismi 2500 4000 Formazione della Terra

Vengono esaminati i principi fondamentali della termodinamica terrestre, analizzando le proprietà di conducibilità e diffusività delle rocce in relazione alla loro struttura minerale, l'evoluzione dei meccanismi di trasporto del calore -reticolare e radiativo -e viene ricavata l'equazione generale della conduzione. Segue la trattazione del concetto di flusso geotermico come energia termica uscente dalla superficie, illustrando le metodologie di misura e l'apporto del calore interno totale (residuo e radiogenico), quale motore fondamentale dei processi geodinamici globali. Si analizzano la propagazione delle oscillazioni termiche superficiali -dai cicli stagionali alle memorie climatiche delle glaciazioni -modellate matematicamente per descriverne lo smorzamento nel sottosuolo, e la struttura termica della litosfera, distinguendo tra i regimi conduttivi continentali e il raffreddamento delle placche oceaniche. La litosfera viene considerata come uno strato limite termico, integrando l'effetto della circolazione idrotermale e il passaggio al regime convettivo dell'astenosfera. L'analisi si estende al mantello e al nucleo, ambiti in cui il trasporto di calore diventa prevalentemente convettivo. Il testo descrive come le transizioni di fase mineralogiche e il gradiente adiabatico regolino la dinamica profonda e discute le stime di temperatura basate sulle curve di fusione dei materiali ad alta pressione, evidenziando il ruolo della convezione come forza motrice per il movimento delle placche tettoniche. Il testo presenta inoltre la reologia della litosfera, determinando il passaggio dal comportamento fragile superficiale degli strati sismogenetici a quello duttile delle zone profonde. Viene approfondita la natura viscoelastica del mantello e il ruolo della viscosità nei processi di riequilibrio isostatico, correlando la sismicità al superamento del limite di rottura per tensioni tettoniche all'interno degli strati fragili. Parallelamente, si esamina il ruolo dell'energia geotermica come risorsa rinnovabile, analizzando i requisiti geologici dei campi geotermici e le tecnologie di estrazione per la produzione elettrica e il teleriscaldamento. Si conclude con l'analisi della formazione dei magmi, descrivendo come il mantello solido possa fondere attraverso meccanismi di decompressione adiabatica, incremento termico o metasomatismo. Viene esaminata la risalita del magma come processo di advezione guidato dalla spinta di galleggiamento e dal disequilibrio meccanico. Integrando modelli fisici e osservazioni sperimentali, il testo offre una visione organica dei processi che governano l'evoluzione energetica e strutturale della Terra. Vincenzo Pasquale iniziò il suo percorso scientifico nel 1970 come ricercatore presso l'Istituto Geofisico e Geodetico dell'Università di Genova, sotto la guida del Prof. Mario Bossolasco. Dal 1980, in qualità di Professore di Fisica della Terra, fece parte del collegio dei docenti del Dottorato di Ricerca in Scienze della Terra, partecipò a diverse associazioni scientifiche internazionali e ricoprì il ruolo di Responsabile Scientifico in progetti di ricerca di rilevanza nazionale. Concluse la sua attività di ricerca nel 2020. La sua attività di ricerca, ampiamente documentata in riviste e atti di convegno, affrontò temi innovativi di carattere internazionale. Tra le sue opere più significative figurano il volume Geothermics: Heat Flow in the Lithosphere (Springer, 2017), scritto con i coautori M. Verdoya e P. Chiozzi, che sintetizza gran parte della sua ricerca teorica e applicata sulla fisica del calore terrestre, e i testi Geofisica e Fisica Terrestre, redatti per supportare gli studenti del suo corso di insegnamento in Fisica Terrestre presso l'Università di Genova. Contribuì, inoltre, alle edizioni 2011 e 2020 della Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics (Springer). Dopo un decennio dedicato alla sismologia e alle energie rinnovabili, la sua attenzione si focalizzò sulle condizioni termiche e reologiche della litosfera, indagando le connessioni tra regime sismotettonico, anomalie geomagnetiche e struttura termica. Modellò la transizione fragile-duttile della litosfera, definendo le profondità oltre le quali non si generano i terremoti e inizia lo scorrimento plastico a causa dell'aumento di temperatura. Sviluppò e perfezionò modelli analitici per separare il calore avvettivo trasportato nelle falde acquifere da quello puramente conduttivo del sottosuolo. Utilizzò i dati di temperatura subsuperficiali per la ricostruzione dei cambiamenti climatici del passato, fornendo prove indipendenti del riscaldamento climatico recente. Fondò il Laboratorio di Geofisica Sperimentale e Radiometria, dove progettò strumenti per l'analisi delle proprietà termiche, del calore radiogenico dei materiali rocciosi e dell'impatto della radioattività naturale sull'ambiente.

Rural development is increasingly shaped by the interaction between technological infrastructure and socioeconomic participation, particularly among women entrepreneurs. This study examines how artificial intelligence (AI), sustainable water systems, and smart energy diagnostics can be integrated to support female entrepreneurship and promote inclusive development in rural communities. While these domains are often analyzed independently, this research emphasizes their interdependence and combined impact on economic participation and system sustainability. The study develops a multidisciplinary framework that integrates AI-driven analytics, circular water management practices, and intelligent fault detection in energy systems. The findings indicate that improved energy reliability reduces operational disruptions, sustainable water systems enhance resource efficiency, and AI-driven decision-making optimizes resource allocation. When combined, these systems create enabling environments that reduce barriers to entrepreneurship, particularly for women in resource-constrained settings. The study contributes to development and infrastructure literature by demonstrating how technological integration can support inclusive and sustainable economic growth.

Rural development is increasingly shaped by the interaction between technological infrastructure and socioeconomic participation, particularly among women entrepreneurs. This study examines how artificial intelligence (AI), sustainable water systems, and smart energy diagnostics can be integrated to support female entrepreneurship and promote inclusive development in rural communities. While these domains are often analyzed independently, this research emphasizes their interdependence and combined impact on economic participation and system sustainability. The study develops a multidisciplinary framework that integrates AI-driven analytics, circular water management practices, and intelligent fault detection in energy systems. The findings indicate that improved energy reliability reduces operational disruptions, sustainable water systems enhance resource efficiency, and AI-driven decision-making optimizes resource allocation. When combined, these systems create enabling environments that reduce barriers to entrepreneurship, particularly for women in resource-constrained settings. The study contributes to development and infrastructure literature by demonstrating how technological integration can support inclusive and sustainable economic growth.