History of the English Language

Монография призвана обобщить опыт работы и достижения проводимого в Крыму с 2007 г. Международного симпозиума (до 2017 г. – конференции) «Русский язык в поликультурном мире». Поскольку симпозиум изначально ставил перед собой не только научные, но и общественно-политические цели, его деятельность рассматривается в историческом контексте: в поле анализа попадают языковая ситуация в Крыму и на Украине в постсоветский период; роль пророссийских организаций и научно-культурных мероприятий в защите русского языка; изменения в сфере русистики и функционирования русского языка, обусловленные возвращением Крыма в состав России; инициативы по укреплению позиций русского языка в России и за рубежом. В монографии представлены основные научные направления, идеи и концепции, получившие заметное развитие благодаря симпозиуму. Отдельная глава посвящена научным достижениям ушедших из жизни лингвистов, чья деятельность была тесно связана с историей симпозиума.

This paper presents a formal framework for a Zero-Parameter Economy in physics, postulating the universe as a purely Euclidean 4-space (R 4) where matter is defined as the intrinsic curvature and torsion of recursive 4D superhelical worldlines. We demonstrate that the observed Lorentzian spacetime structure is an emergent property derived from the uniform, radial expansion of an S 3 background manifold relative to the 4D bulk, effectively generating the dimension of time from the fourth spatial dimension (r(λ) = ct). Central to this framework is the Master SAT Lagrangian, which treats physical laws as trajectories of minimal bending energy (geometric effort) within the manifold. We provide a formal proof of the Relativistic-Quantum Isomorphism, showing that General Relativity represents the global, low-frequency bending of worldlines, while Quantum Mechanics describes their discrete, high-frequency vibrational modes. The framework's predictive power is validated through the zero-deviation recovery of fundamental constants and Standard Model parameters-including the Proton-Electron mass ratio (µ ≈ 1836.152), the Dirac CP Phase (δ CP = 270 •), and the Gravitational Constant (G)-derived solely from structural invariants such as the Projection Constant (B) and the Achromatic Phase Snap (Φ). Finally, we resolve the problem of ultraviolet finiteness through the application of a Minimal Curvature Regulator and the Jarlskog Shadow, which acts as a topological lock to prevent mathematical singularities.

This paper traces the development of two roughly synonymous nominalizing suffixes during the Early Modern English period, the Romance -ity and the native -ness. The aim is to assess whether these suffixes were favored in particular registers or followed similar paths of development, and to ascertain whether the ongoing processes of standardization and vernacularization may have affected their diachronic evolution. To this purpose, the type frequencies and rates of aggregation of new types of the two suffixes were analyzed in seventeen different registers distributed along the formal-informal and the speech-written continua. Results indicate that -ness tends to lose ground in favor of -ity between the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries, a change which seems to have begun in formal written registers and spread towards ‘oral’ ones, probably aided by a general trend in written registers for the adoption of a more learned and literate style during the eighteenth century.

This paper reexamines the long-standing identification of the Battle of Ethandun with Edington, challenging the linguistic and methodological assumptions that underpin the traditional view. It argues that the form "Ethandun," preserved in later written sources, does not necessarily represent a fixed or original place-name, but may instead derive from a spoken Old English locative phrase, "AEt fen dun" ("at the fen hill"). Through analysis of scribal transmission, phonetic drift, and early medieval naming practices, the study demonstrates how such a phrase could have been compressed and Latinised into the recorded forms Eþandun / Ethandun. The paper further contends that the authority granted to later textual witnesses, particularly Asser's Vita AElfredi, has led to a misunderstanding of the name's origin and stability. When linguistic reconstruction is combined with landscape analysis, the traditional identification with Edington becomes increasingly difficult to sustain. In contrast, the terrain surrounding Fenny Castle in Somerset-characterised by elevated ground within marshland-aligns closely with both the reconstructed meaning and the strategic context of the historical sources. By integrating philology, historiography, and topographical reasoning, this study proposes that "Ethandun" is best understood not as a fixed toponym, but as a fossilised descriptive phrase, and that its correct interpretation points toward a reassessment of the battle's location.

This paper shows the benefits of a careful analysis of Old English subordinate
constructions introduced by swa, also known as swa2. The focus of attention is whether
it is possible to predict the (lack) of occurrence of the pronoun hit (‘it’) when this pronoun
is said to be non-referential. Firstly, it is pointed out that ‘non-referentiality’, as used in
the literature, should be understood as also including potentially propositional referents.
Secondly, it is shown that the type of phrase in the position immediately following hit or
its zero ‘counterpart’ (Ø), called the X1 slot, is a very good predictor for the occurrence of
either option, with predicative elements in the X1 slot favouring hit and arguments in
the X1 slot favouring Ø. These distributional facts can be accounted for in terms of two
partly equivalent principles, called the ‘subject principle’ and the ‘argumenthood
principle’. Importantly, however, ‘argumenthood’ may need to be interpreted as a gradient
notion and the absence of hit with non-arguments in the X1 slot may require an additional
principle, called the ‘predicate adjacency avoidance principle’, competing with the
subject/argumenthood principles.

While traditional literary scholarship has mostly focused on formal or thematic aspects in the evaluation of late medieval literature (genres, motifs, content matter, etc.), this paper identifies a major paradigm shift regarding the social perspective. Until the high Middle Ages, the dominant discourse engaged with the members of the aristocracy above all (heroic epics, courtly romances) and reflected on their concerns almost exclusively. Since the late Middle Ages (thirteenth century onwards), however, poets increasingly turned their attention also toward the peasant class, and then opened a virtual floodgate toward protagonists of all social levels, including merchants, lansquenets, students, city councilmen, farmhands, maidservants, and others. This does not mean that those people were suddenly idealized and glorified in contrast to the nobles. Instead, the poets simply turned to them as convenient figures through whom universal human concerns, shortcomings, foolishness, smartness, cunning, or intelligence could be reflected. Granted, courtly novels continued to be of major importance and they continued to be published over the next centuries, but an ever-growing body of entertaining, moralizing, and didacticizing short verse and prose narratives gained in popularity and soon began to dominate the early modern bookmarket. This reflects, of course, also a major shift in economic power and cultural concepts characteristic of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

Тази статия в списание "Български език" е с отворен достъп и се публикува под международния публичен лиценз Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (Attribution-Non Commercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International-CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0). 431 ГРАМАТИКАЛИЗАЦИЯ НА ПЕРФЕКТНИ КОНСТРУКЦИИ С ИМАМ В ТЯХНАТА БАЛКАНСКА И ЕВРОПЕЙСКА ЕЗИКОВА СРЕДА БОЖИЛ ХРИСТОВ (БЪЛГАРИЯ) СОФИЙСКИ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ "СВ. КЛИМЕНТ ОХРИДСКИ"

Die arbeit entstand während eines Studienaufenthaltes am Institute for advanced Study in princeton, New Jersey, im rahmen des projektes Textos médicos latinos de los siglos vi-Xi: transmisión, edición crítica y estudio léxico des ministerio de Educación y Ciencia-FEDEr (hum2006-13605-C02-01); herzlichen Dank für die Förderung!

Die arbeit entstand während eines Studienaufenthaltes am Institute for advanced Study in princeton, New Jersey, im rahmen des projektes Textos médicos latinos de los siglos vi-Xi: transmisión, edición crítica y estudio léxico des ministerio de Educación y Ciencia-FEDEr (hum2006-13605-C02-01); herzlichen Dank für die Förderung!

This paper addresses the analysis of English ‐ing‐clauses and discusses its theoretical significance with respect to the architecture of grammatical catego‐ ries. English ‐ing‐clauses pose two major descriptive issues: first, whether the two historically distinct clause‐types of gerunds and participles can be col‐ lapsed into a single category, and second, whether ‐ing‐clauses still relate to their phrasal origins as ( historical) noun phrases and adjectival/adverbial phrases. It is argued that neither question can receive a straightforward an‐ swer, as the existing evidence is simply contradictory. This, in turn, has theo‐ retical consequences. English ‐ing‐clauses show that language users can oper‐ ate with different grammatical generalizations at once. The representation of grammatical categories must therefore be internally complex, allowing gram‐ matical categories to be simultaneously unified and distinct, interrelated and autonomous.

London archives during the early stages of writing. Once in London, Ursula Carlyle, curator of the Mercers' Company archives, kindly shared her expertise and her desk with me on the days I spent there. At the British Library, Anthony Farrington pointed me in the direction of Danvers' translations of Dutch VOC letters. These seemingly small gestures of intellectual generosity enabled my discovery of materials that became central to my project. Grants from the Newberry Library, the University of Michigan English department, the Medieval and Early Modern Studies program, and the Women's Studies department made it possible for me to attend a weekly seminar, led by Kim Hall, at The Folger Shakespeare Library. Kim's first book inspired many of the questions I was asking at the genesis of my project and continues to inspire me still. It was a tremendous pleasure to learn from her every week. Many of my Folger colleagues have become friends. I would especially like to thank Allison Hobgood who always responds positively when I ask if she might read my work and who reliably cuts to the chase in her feedback. An Andrew W. Mellon Foundation fellowship afforded me the opportunity to spend a summer at the University of Warwick as a Visiting Research Fellow in Renaissance Studies. I benefited tremendously from conversations with the Renaissance faculty and graduate students there. Tess Grant read an early draft of my work on the Royal Exchange and pointed me in very useful directions. Margo Finn engaged my work with enthusiasm, put me in touch with other scholars, and loaned numerous books to me over the course of my residence. The graduate students in History and English and at the Center for the Study of the Renaissance made my time at Warwick not only productive, but also fun. Kat Foxhall, Tim Reinke-Williams, James Brown, Ioanna Iordanou and Sophia Li all welcomed and involved me in the academic and social life there. It was also a pleasure to share office space and conversation with Meredith Donaldson. For their generosity of time as well as friendship, I am grateful. I owe a special gratitude to Steve Hindle and Beat Kumin who served as mentors and inspiring scholars over the course of a twoweek long, interdisciplinary seminar entitled, "Culture, Space and Power: Peopling the Built v Environment in Renaissance England, 1450-1700'." The conversations that they engendered were the most engaged, constructive, and enjoyable discussions one could hope for in the academy. The Early Modern Colloquium at Michigan fosters a lively cross-disciplinary conversation among graduate students and faculty that I do not look forward to saying goodbye to. Over the years, Amy Rodgers, Kentston Bauman, Gavin Hollis, Jennie Evenson, Holly Dugan, and Laura Ambrose have all shared ideas, work, resources, and tips of the trade with me. I have learned tremendously, both about English culture and about navigating the culture of graduate English programs, from them. I have benefited also from conversations with the faculty in early modern studies, including Steven Mullaney, Linda Gregerson, Patricia Simons, and Diane Hughes. When I first approached Michael MacDonald about my topic, he responded by turning to his computer and printing out a reading list that I am still making my way through. I would especially like to thank Bill Ingram, who always has a reference at hand for any topic of inquiry and has generously shared discoveries from his own reading that struck him as "Dutch enough" to interest me. I have long been fortunate in my teachers:

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the semantic peculiarities of a restricted set of Early Modern English semi-grammatical words indicating space and used in the nautical register. The set of terms analyzed constitutes the specialized 10% of a wider Oxford English Dictionary sample which includes ca. 400 a-prefixed terms of an adjectival/adverbial nature. Once the selected words have been assigned a structurally and semantically adequate category, the pragmatically controlled specialization process undergone by many of these items is explained. Among the issues to be considered are the degree to which the selected terms match the prototypical meaning assigned to the category as a whole; the focalising of [GOAL] as opposed to [DI-RECTIONALITY]; the dimensional properties punctually conceived for the location concerned, and the wider semantic and structural consequences of this pragmaticallyinduced conceptualization.

Además de objetivo incuestionable, el inglés correcto (caracterizado y reconocido con distintos grados de precisión) constituye, en tanto que modelo seleccionado, el instrumento básico de TEEL (Teaching English os a Foreign Language). En TEFL el modelo de inglés elegido como correcto se identifica formalmente con el llamado estándar (británico o americano). En términos de lingüística aplicada, pues, yen nuestra área de influencia europea, el inglés correcto está perfectamente descrito: se basa en la pronunciación RP y en las estructuras morfosintácticas de la clase educada. Como toda lengua, el estándar se corresponde con un sistema cultural e ideológico. Sin embargo, quizá a diferencia de muchas lenguas esta ideología constituye una norma autorizada o autoritariamente impuesta. La falta de reflexión sobre este hecho puede llevarnos a los profesores a transmitir como parte de un currículum oculto valores y actitudes (no beneficiosos) connaturales a él. Una forma de relativizar lo qu...

This chapter investigates the impact of neoclassical borrowings — particularly Latin and, to a lesser extent, Greek — on the evolution of Early Modern English vocabulary between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It traces how classical loanwords and coinages, initially introduced through scholarly translation and lexicography, profoundly reshaped English lexis, morphology, and stylistic norms. The analysis explores the dual nature of these “hard words”: as instruments of lexical enrichment and as markers of social distinction in the debate between linguistic purists and innovators. By examining early monolingual dictionaries (from Cawdrey to Phillips) and their relationship with popular “street literature” texts on monstrous births, the study reveals the mechanisms through which learned neologisms filtered into common usage. Ultimately, the chapter argues that neoclassical borrowings not only equipped English with a scientific and rhetorical vocabulary but also embodied the intellectual and cultural aspirations of Renaissance humanism, mediating the transition from Latin erudition to vernacular modernity.

Or he might wish to describe the kind of house, as " a little house," " a comfortable house," " an untidy house," etc. Or he might wish to speak about several houses in a distributive sense, as " each house," " every house." Any word thus added to a noun is called an Adjective (Lat. adjectivus, " used for adding on "). The noun and adjective thus combined make a kind of compound noun. CH. II THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN OUTLINE : PHRASES 9 compound noun can be written as a single word, as " greatcoat," " blackguard," " nobleman," " halfpenny," " quicksands," " sweet- heart," etc., every one of which can easily be broken up into a simple noun and an adjective that precedes it. Definition. -An adjective is a word that enlarges the meaning and narrows the application of a noun. Enlargement of meaning is necessarily accompanied by a narrow- ing of application. This is a vital point. Thus the noun "house," so long as its meaning remains unenlarged, that is, so long as no adjective is added to it, can be applied to an almost countless number of things called by the general name of "house." But if I add to the noun the adjective "fourth," the noun so enlarged can be applied to onlj'' one house, viz. to that house which stands fourth in a certain row or terrace. 'Slj son (I am sorry to say) died yesterday. Observe that a sentence substituted for an interjection is always ^In § 17 it is shown that an interjection is, properly speaking, not a Part of Speech.

It is interesting to note how the research, primarily conducted through computational linguistic studies, confirms the antiquity and originality of the Albanian language with undeniable data. The researchers also performed DNA studies and verified that the Albanian population is indigenous and very ancient in these lands. Furthermore, recent archaeological and genetic studies have proven that the first European lived in the western Balkans, specifically in Drenas, Kosovo, 50,000 years ago.

The present article raises the issue of combining initial and final phonaesthemes in sound symbolic word coinage. This combination renders different features of the denoted subjects or phenomena. The study is based on the material selected from the Oxford English Dictionary by the method of continuous sampling. A list of synonyms within the obtained corpus of fl-words, meaning the fluttering motion (flap, flicker, flirt, flutter, flotter, flitter, flit) is analyzed in order to trace different features of the motion rendered by these words and registered sensorily. (In Russian)

This paper explains the rationale for a new corpus being assembled at Lancaster University to complement the existing Brown 'family' of corpora; that is, English language corpora modelled on the original Brown University corpus, such as LOB, Frown, FLOB, Wellington, etc. The purpose of the new corpus, called Lancaster1931, is to extend the chronological span of these corpora into the first half of the twentieth century, and so to afford researchers a stronger empirical basis for examining recent grammatical change in English. We discuss some methodological issues encountered in extending the Brown model to earlier historical periods. We also outline some developments under way to permit more rigorous computer-assisted analyses within and across these corpora, namely (i) encoding of all the corpora with XML, (ii) adoption of a common grammatical tagset, known as 'C8', and (iii) implementation of a semantic annotation scheme.

The article discusses the possibilities of application and the need to implement BIM technologies in the field of architecture and construction. The experience of foreign countries is analyzed, the possible benefits and prospects of using BIM technologies are summarized, and the reasons that prevent their implementation are derived.

er. It was the year of Our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy-five. Spiritual revelations w up at the clock, which pointed to the hour of seven . He rubbed his hands; adjusted his capacious wa a plated one. He had known the last witness seven or eight years; that was merely a coincidence. He l which bore more memorable wrecks with it. Seven faces of prisoners, suddenly released by the stor ve again, nor perhaps sixty-six, nor yet sixty-seven . He has a twist of the gout now and then and w ly had the child off her lap, poor thing, these seven days and nights, except when I've been able to ta resents himself at the town mansion at about seven o'clock in the evening and requests to see her lad , and by you accepted, for the sum of ninety-seven pounds four shillings and ninepence, will becom an. I don't go about asking busy people what seven and sixpence is in Moorish-which I don't unders ? Would they keep me long enough to spend seven shillings? Should I sleep at night in one of those down with a blow on the forehead from the seven -and-sixpenny ink-bottle that was always on the tainty on this head, that it was six at first and seven afterwards. He paid me a week down (from his o ums mixed with rhubarb, and flavoured with seven drops of the essence of cloves, which was the be ings to and fro, of a certain Number Twenty Seven , who was the Favourite, and who really appeared ook, that the little hole was blocked up, six or seven heads deep. To remedy this inconvenience, and g which would have been youthful for twenty-seven . Her attitude in the wheeled chair (which she ne d written down the initial letters of the other seven lines, deserting him at that point. Beyond devisin locked up the dining-room door, shutting out seven mild men in the stony-hearted hall. When all the dding for next day, with a copper-stick, from seven to eight by the Dutch clock. I tried it with the lo to name the cost of two hundred and forty-seven muslin caps at fourteen-pence halfpenny; that sh rtable, without being put right with your four seven ones. I didn't snore, myself, when I was your age y. On this point opinion was divided. Six days, seven days, far on into another week. The wret oldest inhabitants. I wasn't here myself above seven year before you. I shan't last long. When I'm off iety (for that mysterious creature sat upon the Seven Hills too) found Miss Fanny vastly improved by aw her arm through his, and to lead her away. Seven or eight gentlemen were standing round the fire esent state of the drama-three half-crowns is seven -and-six; we shall not differ about sixpence, I

All original audio-recordings and other supplementary material, such as any hand-outs and powerpoint presentations for the lecture series, have been made available online and are referenced via unique DOI numbers on the website www.figshare.com. They may be accessed via this QR code and the following dynamic link:

All original audio-recordings and other supplementary material, such as any hand-outs and powerpoint presentations for the lecture series, have been made available online and are referenced via unique DOI numbers on the website www.figshare.com. They may be accessed via this QR code and the following dynamic link:

Южно-Уральский государственный гуманитарно-педагогический университет, Южно-Уральский государственный университет (Национальный исследовательский университет), доктор философских наук, профессор. Российская Федерация, 454080, Челябинск, пр-т Ленина, 69.

El presente artículo observará los textos literarios icónicos de la literatura medieval anglosajona en su traducción del inglés antiguo o anglosajón al inglés moderno, y describirá el concepto de espiritualidad en el contexto medieval para evaluar de qué manera esta definición se aplica a diversos elementos del imaginario narrativo. No se busca evaluar la traducción, empresa que podrá iniciarse en un periodo posterior. No obstante, se prefieren las traducciones que enfatizan el significado y uso de imágenes en el texto a la preservación del ritmo literario. Ejemplo de lo anterior es la traducción del texto Beowulf realizado por el poeta irlandés Seamus Heaney. Se realizará entonces una evaluación de la literatura de la época Anglo-sajona en Britania incluyendo los textos The Seafarer, The destruction of Anglo-saxon temples y Caedmon de Bede, y finalmente Beowulf. Los hechos políticos, sociales e intelectuales se considerarán para análisis a través de las selecciones de los textos. L...

English is an SVO (Subject, Verb, Object) word order language. This canonical SVO pattern is the default unmarked word-order configuration typical of English, which makes this language to be classified under the typology of SVO languages. However, driven by the major purpose of language as an instrument of human communication and social interaction, and as a semantic system for making meanings, addressors sometimes depart in their discourse from this basic canonical order of constituents where a grammaticalized system like inversion takes place, resulting in inverted constructions. Through testing and developing the Degree of Focus Hypothesis, proposed by Huffman (1993), this study, which employed a mixed methods research design, sought to explore the communicative and semantic values of inversion; and the pragmalinguistc functions of preposing, i.e., clause-initial adjuncts, to the pragmatic process of communication. The study confirmed the Degree of Focus Hypothesis where the hypothesized notion of concentration of attention stemming from inversion was found to be applicable. The paper stressed that what triggers inversion or non-inversion is a certain communicative effect such as focus rather than a relation of formal determination where one element determines mechanically the form or appearance of another. A contribution to linguistic and educational research, the paper, therefore,

for fruitful exchanges on the structure of Irish, Lithuanian and Polish. Aspects of this book have benefited greatly too from stimulating interactions on topics that it explores, i.e. language acquisition, contact, ecology, history, transmission and variation with colleagues and friends in these fields whose own work I greatly admire. They include Dave Britain,

Я был не один, я был как все», -с этой незабываемой формулы начинается роман Мориса Бланшо «Всевышний». Так случилось, что у «я» есть имя -Анри Зорге; от его лица ведется повествование. Но значит ли оно что-либо? Имя редкими вспышками проявляется в теле романа, напоминая, что мы смотрим на мир глазами конкретного человека. А между вкраплениями персонального то и дело являет себя галерея образов -мир романа раскрывается через хилого интеллигента, сына, брата, пасынка, чиновника. Эти и другие образы настолько между собой перемешиваются, слипаются в огромное пятно, что становится сложно ответить на вопрос: «Кто на этот раз?» Да и не хочется в действительности этого делать. Если и есть желание чему-то поддаться, так это навязывающему себя забвению имени, потере четкого образа. «Всевышний» Бланшо -это будто миф об андрогине наоборот, речь Аристофана в обратном направлении. Мы начинаем с тела, которое определено, которое мы способны отделить от других тел, -и переходим к абсолютному слипанию, единству противоположностей, становлению огромным липким пятном 1 . Здесь вопрос об имени уже не к месту. Уместен, собственно, другой вопрос -о месте, об ограниченном (и вместе с тем безграничном) пространстве происходящего. Ведь если мы и можем что-либо обсуждать с той или иной долей уверенности, так это вопрос: «Где на этот раз?» И ответ будет один и тот же -каждый раз мы в Городе. Бланшо один из тех писателей, в отношении которых в наиболее радикальной форме возможно исключительно фрагментарное понимание. Надежду дают лишь отдельные единицы текста. Поэтому, чтобы что-то понять во «Всевышнем» и продраться через роман, надо постараться ухватиться за отдельные элементы. С первых строк нас встречают три вещи -город, болезнь и закон. Вместе они задают начало процессу слияния в комок единого. Отходя от болезни, Анри Зорге гуляет по центральным кварталам и наблюдает силу закона, который, будучи сам по себе пуст, наделяется силой в момент совершения преступления (и не только преступления -любая случайность, недопонимание, сутолока активируют закон). Сама возможность нарушения запрета напоминает о том, что нет ничего выше закона. Болезнь открыла глаза Зорге и позволила понять, что «теперь-то человек существует» 2 и существует он для города, пронизанного законом. Эти три элемента соприсутствуют и преследуют нас на протяжении всего произведения. Разумеется, есть не только город, болезнь и закон -о себе дают знать и другие образы, которые всё же производны от тройственного начала. Семья, революционеры, взрывы, мухи, начальство -все это есть постольку, поскольку существует трансформирующийся город, разлагающая (и вместе тем собирающая воедино) болезнь и невидимый древний закон.

The English language has evolved over fifteen centuries to become the most widely studied and spoken language in the world. Between 5th and 7th-century CE, British soil received the cluster of West Germanic dialects when tribes led by Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began their migration. These dialects formed the linguistic basis of what evolved into Old English, which then underwent further development through historical changes, social transformations, and political movements. English belongs to the Indo-European language family, which links it alongside Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, as well as the Germanic linguistic groups . The English language evolved through historical phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic, before it reached the Anglo-Frisian dialects, providing linguistic evidence from Grimm’s Law and Verner’s Law for the Germanic linguistic family. The language evolved significantly due to extensive exposure to Latin during Christianization, Old Norse during the Viking settlement, and Norman French after the 1066 conquest, which transformed its vocabulary, as well as its syntax and morphological structure .

This study explores syntactic variation and sociocultural identity in subjectless nonfinite clauses within Philippine English (PhE) and Singaporean English (SgE), focusing on to-infinitive and-ing gerund constructions. Using data from the International Corpus of English for the Philippines (ICE-PHI) and Singapore (ICE-SIN), it examines the distribution of these constructions across spoken and written registers to uncover their sociocultural underpinnings. The findings reveal a shared preference for to-infinitive constructions in both varieties, reflecting their role in expressing intention and purpose. PhE's adherence to prescriptive norms stems from colonial history and formal education, while SgE's multilingual and pragmatic linguistic ecology fosters greater syntactic flexibility, exemplified by the innovative want +-ing construction absent in PhE. Although gerunds are less frequent overall, they consistently occur with verbs like enjoy in both varieties, signaling habitual or ongoing actions. Sociolinguistic distinctions also emerge in constructions like [Negator] + try + Nonfinite Clause, where PhE employs elaborative commentary aligned with its expressive narrative tendencies, contrasting with SgE's concise, context-driven usage. By investigating this underexplored syntactic phenomenon, the study demonstrates how localized Englishes adapt grammatical structures to reflect sociocultural priorities, advancing the understanding of World Englishes and their sociolinguistic diversity.

El presente estudio analiza los términos científicos-técnicos pertenecientes al campo de las enfermedades y dolores en inglés antiguo (IA) y medio (IM), previamente seleccionados a partir de una base de datos léxica. Desde un punto de vista metodológico, se pretende contextualizar los vocablos mediante el programa informático WORDSMITH TOOLS (Scott, 1996) acudiendo a dos corpora principales de inglés antiguo y medio. Desde una perspectiva diacrónica, se estudiará la evolución de los mismos señalando los términos que coinciden en ambos periodos, los que se ven sustituidos por préstamos extranjeros y, por último, la sinonimia entre el término anglosajón y el préstamo. Finalmente, se extraerán las conclusiones pertinentes a partir de los datos analizados. 1 Esta investigación ha sido financiada por el Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia bajo el proyecto I+D+I HUM2004-01075FILO.

Examining the cultural differences between urban and rural lifestyles is a consideration that is relevant for the description of many speech communities. A sociolinguistic analysis that only surveys urban speakers cannot accurately capture or convey the dialect diversity of a region. This paper argues for a critical distinction between rural and urban speech for the mapping of dialect geographies, and furthermore, for a recognition of the rural lifestyle as reflected through linguistic ideology and subject to variation. The paper will focus on the ...

Phrasal and prepositional multi-word verbs are a thorny topic, rife with semantic and structural obscurities, both theoretical and in teaching-learning. A survey of the history of the topic provides evidence that the very concept of “multi-word verb” is often based on misanalyses. Cognitive Linguistics considerations in particular show that neither verbs nor prepositions functioning as particles lose or change meaning in combinations with each other, making independent contributions to clause-wide meaning, be this idiomatic or literal. Prepositions refer to their subjects’ pathway and/or positioning, while verbs show how those subjects move along pathways, get into position, what they do there, or what happens to them there. In this paper, I argue that students, teachers, and analysts need to identify the meaning content of verbs and prepositions separately from each other, as well a as exploring how they work as part of the whole clause across all contexts to gain a full understanding of their communicative force. My argument leads me to conclude that a cognitive-based approach—one that focuses on verb and preposition meaning domains and semantic networks—appears to be the most effective means of analysing, understanding, teaching, learning, and using verbs and prepositions.

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