Human Anatomy

Background and justification for the study: Every symptom is an indication of bodily derangements which a patient feels when sick. The medical personal has to recognize these derangements only by symptomatic study of the disease without making any hypothetical theories. Therefore, examining symptoms is the sole correct method for determining the presentation of a disease. In Homoeopathy, a complete symptom is that which covers location, sensation, modalities and concomitant symptoms. The Location means the anatomical site from where the disease is generating and manifesting its clinical presentation in form of the symptoms. It specifies the precise location, ranging from cellular to organ levels, where the lesion or symptom is manifested. The meaning of location in the definition of complete symptom is, the seat of the disease; it means the part of the body which is involved in the generation of the disease. In Homoeopathy, some medicines have affinities to particular location of the symptoms and their particular medicines are documented in Homoeopathic Materia Medicas by various Homoeopaths. Every organ of the abdominal cavity has its specific location region wise; and disorders related to them are reflected in signs and symptoms expressed by the patient himself or observed by the physician. Here we are trying to state about the location of the symptom in relation to nine anatomical abdominal regions, i.e., epigastric region, right and left hypochondriac regions, umbilical region, right and left lumbar regions, hypogastric region and right and left iliac regions and Homoeopathic medicines related to pathological symptoms of that particular region described by various Homoeopaths.

Background: The outpatient department is an important part of the overall running of the hospital. Many patients are examined and given treatment as outpatients before being admitted to the hospital at a later date as inpatients. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that OPD services provide an excellent experience for customers. Educational hospitals play a crucial role in healthcare delivery while simultaneously serving as training grounds for future healthcare professionals. The collegiate hospital of University College of Homoeopathy, Kekri. is newly started hospital by the state Government running in an old CHC building, which is located in the old area of the city and the infrastructure is not sufficient for the current hospital requirements. The current study is specifically useful for the assessment of the health care system in this old building of Homoeopathic hospital at Kekri, and the lacuna found here in old building can be corrected to enhance the quality of OPD services in the under-construction new building. Objectives: The general objective of this study was to assess the different parameters that are helpful to strengthen the Outpatient Department services in Government Homoeopathic Hospital at Kekri, Rajasthan. The specific objectives were to describe functioning of Outpatient Department services in a Government Homoeopathic Hospital at Kekri, Rajasthan, to identify the factors that affect the satisfaction level of patients and to suggest measures to improve and strengthen the quality of Outpatient Department services. Materials & methodology: The study was an institutional cross-sectional observational study, conducted at collegiate hospital of University College of Homoeopathy, Kekri, Rajasthan in between months of April 2024 to June 2024. Total 50 patients and their attendants irrespective of their age, gender and clinical condition, visiting various outpatient departments (OPDs), were examined in the study. All the subjects were provided by the self-made semi-structured patient satisfaction questionnaire (PSQ) at the exit point of the OPD, which was containing eleven statements with their responses ranging from strongly agree (score 5) to strongly disagree (score 1) related to OPD services. Data analysis was done using Microsoft excel with descriptive analysis. Results: The total score of the questionnaire (PSQ) was assessed and it was found maximum number of respondents (44%) were at the score range 20-28 that is not remarkable satisfaction regarding OPD services. Out of 550 responses only 172 (31.27%) responses found strongly agree with all the statements of the questionnaire. Conclusion: A middle range of satisfaction was found among majority of the patients with the services provided in OPD of the hospital. Most of the respondents were satisfied with services provided by the doctors, their reasoning power and their qualifications. For the infrastructure and basic amenities related issues the responses were showing dissatisfaction. Least satisfaction was found in services related to availability of educational material at OPD, accessibility of laboratory and the reports, accessibility of the pharmacy and lastly regarding behaviour of the staff.

The “Blechschmidt Collection of Human Embryos” housed at the Anatomical Institute of Göttingen University (Germany) is an important historical collection of human embryo specimens whose history dates back up to the mid-1940s. It is named after its founder Prof. Erich Blechschmidt (1904–1992). A 2-year research project was conducted from 2017 to 2019 with the aim of clarifying the provenience of the human embryo specimens collected by Blechschmidt. This project not only has provided information on the origin of the specimens but, additionally, led to the discovery of photographic documents illustrating the process by which Blechschmidt built the enlarged 3-dimensional replicas of human embryos that are shown in a dedicated exhibition hall in the basement of the Anatomical Institute. Here, we report on an embryo from the Blechschmidt collection whose biography as a microscopical specimen as well as a source for objects of Blechschmidt’s collection of 3-dimensional replicas of human em...

The extensor tendons of the foot are crucial for maintaining the intricate movements and stability of the foot and ankle complex. Understanding these variations is essential for health-care professionals involved in foot-related pathologies. The study was conducted to identify and document variations in extensor tendons of the foot during routine dissection of human cadavers and to highlight their clinical significance. Materials and Methods: This was an observational study conducted in the Department of Anatomy, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. Eight embalmed cadavers were examined, and the dorsum of the foot was dissected to explore the proximal and distal attachments of extensor muscles. Results: We observed unilateral variations in extensor tendons of the feet of three limbs during routine dissection. First case showed a bifurcation of extensor hallucis longus, giving tendons to great toe as well as 2 nd toe. Second case showed a variation in extensor digitorum longus tendon of the 4 th toe giving lateral and medial slips along with its main tendon. The medial slip further gave medial and lateral divisions to merge distally with the long tendons of 3 rd and 4 th toe, respectively. The third case depicted the bifurcation of extensor hallucis brevis to give tendinous slips to great toe and 2 nd toe, respectively. Conclusion: Knowledge of these variations in extensor tendons of foot is crucial for accurate interpretation of diagnostic imaging, surgical planning, and optimizing treatment outcomes.

We aimed to generate a valid reliable Arabic version of MOS social support survey (MOS-SSS). We did a cross sectional study in medical students of Faculty of Medicine in Khartoum, Sudan. We did a clustered random sampling in 500 students of which 487 were suitable for analysis. We followed the standard translation process for translating the MOS-SSS. We accomplished factor analysis to assess construct validity, and generated item-scales correlations to evaluate the convergent and discriminant validity. We extracted the Cronbach's α and Spearman Brown coefficient of spit half method to determine internal consistency. We measured stability by correlation between the scores of the MOS survey taken at two different occasions with ten days apart in 252 participants. All items correlated highly (0.788 or greater) with their hypothesized scales. All items in subscales correlated higher by two standard errors with their own scale than with any other scale. Principle component analysis with varimax rotation was conducted on the 19 items and examination of scree plot graphically suggested 4 predominant factors that account for 72 % of variance. It showed high loadings, ranging from 0.720 to 0.84 for items of emotional support, 0.699-0.845 for tangible support, 0.518-0.823 for affectionate support, and 0.740-0.816 for positive social interaction. Cronbach's alpha for overall MOS scale and subscales indicated high internal consistency. The test-retest correlation showed weak correlation between the test and retest (ranges from 0.04 to 0.104). The Arabic MOS-SSS had high validity and internal consistency.

Receptive fields of neurons in the forelimb region of areas 3b and 1 of primary somatosensory cortex, in cats and monkeys, were mapped using extracellular recordings obtained sequentially from nearly radial penetrations. Locations of the field centroids indicated the presence of a functional system in which cortical homotypic representations of the limb surfaces are entwined in three-dimensional Möbius-strip-like patterns of synaptic connections. Boundaries of somatosensory receptive field in nested groups irregularly overlie the centroid order, and are interpreted as arising from the superposition of learned connections upon the embryonic order. Since the theory of embryonic synaptic self-organization used to model these results was devised and earlier used to explain findings in primary visual cortex, the present findings suggest the theory may be of general application throughout cortex and may reveal a modular functional synaptic system, which, only in some parts of the cortex, ...

BONE´S, es un Atlas de Anatomía Humana Ilustrada, específicamente para osteología, artrología del territorio de cabeza y cuello, incluyendo el aparato dentario, de distribución gratuita.
Contiene ilustraciones inéditas, rotuladas con los nombres anatómicos de las diferentes estructuras en base a una nomenclatura moderna y actualizada.
La gran mayoria de las estructuras ilustradas son representaciones basadas en material cadavérico humano aportando el realismo necesario para el aprendizaje efectivo. Algunas ilustraciones se encuentran complemetadas con cápsulas en video, alojadas en Youtube donde se entrega una explicación tridimensional de los elementos anatómicos.
Posee un anexo donde encontrarás imagenes para rotular y pintar para que puedas verificar tu aprendizaje.
La bibliografía base para la rotulación de estructuras, se encuentra obtenida de tratados y compendios tradicionales de la Anatomía Humana y antropología física, entre los que destacan los autores Jean L.Testut (1849-1925), André Latarjet (1877-1947) y Henry Rouviere (1876-1952), Udo Krenzer, por mencionar algunos.

Al final de este libro, encontrarás algunos videos como complemento de esta materia en mi canal de youtube

Introducción: El objetivo de este estudio es reflejar las reacciones físicas y emocionales de los estudiantes de primer curso de Medicina de la Universidad de Barcelona (Campus de Bellvitge) ante la sala de disección. Material y métodos: Los estudiantes responden a tres cuestionarios que valoran la intensidad del miedo, las reacciones físicas y psicológicas frente la sala de disección y los métodos de afrontamiento, en dos momentos del curso: al inicio y al final del curso académico. Resultados: Las reacciones más frecuentes fueron la sensación de disgusto, la pérdida del apetito, las imágenes visuales recurrentes de los cadáveres, el insomnio y las pesadillas. Respecto a los métodos de afrontamiento más usados por los estudiantes para contrarrestar las reacciones adversas correspondieron en juntarse y hacer broma con los amigos, estudiar anatomía y pedir consejo a compañeros y profesores. Conclusiones: La sala de disección representa, para los estudiantes del primer curso de medicina, el primer encuentro relacionado con la muerte y ésta, a la vez, implica el desarrollo de mecanismos de adaptación en su futuro profesional. Los profesores de anatomía no solo tienen una mera función docente como transmisores de contenidos, sino que también deberían dar apoyo a la adaptación progresiva de los alumnos a la sala de disección.

Abstract

This slide presentation provides a comprehensive overview of the gross anatomy of the perineum, emphasizing its anatomical boundaries, subdivisions, neurovascular supply, musculature, fascial organization, and clinical relevance. The perineum represents the inferior aspect of the pelvic outlet and is anatomically divided into the urogenital and anal triangles, each containing structures essential for urinary, reproductive, gastrointestinal, and pelvic floor functions.

The presentation highlights the superficial and deep perineal spaces, associated muscles, erectile tissues, and supporting fasciae, alongside the vascular and neural components primarily supplied by branches of the internal pudendal vessels and pudendal nerve. Detailed anatomical illustrations and descriptions are utilized to demonstrate the spatial relationships of perineal structures and their functional significance in continence, sexual physiology, and pelvic support.

Additionally, the presentation explores important clinical correlations including episiotomy, pudendal nerve block, perineal tears, hemorrhoids, ischioanal abscesses, and surgical approaches involving the pelvic floor and external genitalia. Emphasis is placed on the importance of perineal anatomy in medical education, surgical training, obstetrics, gynecology, urology, and colorectal practice.

Overall, this presentation aims to enhance understanding of the gross anatomy of the perineum and its relevance in both anatomical sciences and clinical application.

En el presente seminario, se disertará sobre la columna
vertebral como parte integral del esqueleto axial, mediante
representaciones gráficas sobre las articulaciones y ligamentos
específicos. Asimismo, la descripción del cuerpo vertebral, disco
intervertebral y ligamentos entre arcos.
En el mismo orden de ideas, se profundizará sobre tópicos
relacionados con el cráneo vertebral (articulaciones atlantoaxial y
atlanooccipital) sus curvaturas y patologías medicas de estas
estructuras óseas.

En la presente disertación se ilustrará lo relativo al miembro superior como conjunto estructural especializado qué combina resistencia y movilidad.

Asimismo, la morfología de los huesos del cinturón escapulario (clavícula y escapula) y la parte libre (húmero, radio y ulna (cúbito)).

Se expondrá lo pertinente a los complejos huesos de la mano (carpo, metacarpo y falanges) y las múltiples tareas de fuerza y precisión que puede ejecutar.

Corresponding Author: Dr. Rimple Bansal, Assistant professor, Department of Anatomy, GMC Patiala, Punjab, India. Phone no 09417846363 E-Mail: [email protected] Background and Aim: Anatomical variations of neuromuscular structures of gluteal region are common. Each and every anatomical variation reflects a different and case specific clinical presentation. Piriformis is the key muscle to this region. This work was done to re-investigate the morphology of this muscle and structures related to it, in sufficient number of specimens to correlate with clinical syndrome. Materials and Methods: 60-lower extremities with gluteal region belonging to 30 embalmed adult human cadavers named as specimens comprised the material for this study. Gluteal region was dissected to see the variations in the origin, insertion and accessory slips of piriformis muscle. Results and Conclusion: Out of 60 specimens, piriformis consisted of one belly in 55 specimens (91.67%) and two bellies were observed in ...

Globally, there has been a rise in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), impacting nearly one in every 160 children. However, its prevalence in many low-and middle-income countries remains uncertain. Although ASD has been connected to various bodily characteristics, its link to digits has been scarcely explored, particularly among the Hausa population. This study aimed to compare 2D and 4D digits between individuals with ASD and controls in the Hausa population of Kano State, Nigeria. The study was a cross-sectional comparative study, and using convenience sampling, 48 students aged 8 to 19 years (24 with ASD and 24 controls) participated in the study. Direct anthropometric measurements of the second (2D) and fourth digits (4D) of both hands were taken, and the digit ratios were calculated accordingly. Normality of data distribution was assessed with the Shapiro-Wilk test, while independent sample t-tests and Mann-Whitney U tests were used to compare means between groups. Results showed that although ASD participants generally had higher mean 2D and 4D lengths of both hands, no significant differences were observed in the 2D:4D ratios between ASD and control groups overall. However, when stratified by sex using independent sample t-tests and Mann-Whitney U tests, males with ASD exhibited a significantly greater right 2D length compared to controls (P = 0.030). No significant sexual dimorphism was found within the digit parameters of either group. This study suggests that while digit lengths may differ in males with ASD, the 2D:4D digit ratio may not be a distinguishing marker for ASD in this population.

Understanding three-dimensional anatomical structures from two-dimensional textbooks has long been one of the most significant challenges facing preclinical medical students. Spatial reasoning deficits, limited cadaveric access, and the static nature of traditional learning materials collectively create a comprehension gap that carries real consequences in clinical settings. This paper examines the cognitive underpinnings of why students struggle with 3D anatomical understanding, reviews the documented pedagogical limitations of conventional approaches, and explores how modern 3D medical animation is beginning to close that gap. Drawing on educational research and emerging practices in the medical visualization industry, this discussion offers a practical framework for students, educators, and curriculum developers seeking to improve anatomical literacy.

Background: The sacral hiatus (SH) is of main interest in procedures such as caudal epidural anaesthesia (CEA) and spinal analgesia. Shape and size can vary drastically, and a successful and safe procedure may be hampered due to these variations. Objectives: This article investigates the human sacral hiatus variations and postulates that differences in the sacral hiatus relate to CEA failure and lower back pain. Materials and Methods: We have reviewed the literature published from 2000 to 2025 from PubMed and Google Scholar. The publications presenting the sacral hiatus anatomical features and association with the procedures were our primary sources. We searched for the trends and possible relationships. Results: The most frequent shape for SH was an inverted U, followed by an inverted V. Mean length varied from around 21 to 30 mm, with minor differences between males and females and different ethnic groups. Variations in the width, depth, and location of the SH made CEA difficult. Besides, some shapes and locations were associated with low back pain. Conclusion: The sacral hiatus innately differs from one person to another and may impact the efficacy of caudal epidural anaesthesia. Clinicians aware of these differences will have a higher rate of procedural success and a lower rate of complications. Imaging may be a reasonable precaution before performing CEA, especially with such a wide range of anatomical variations.

Топография верхней конечности Подключичная область Границы: сверху-ключица, снизу-3 ребро, верхний край большой грудной мышцы Здесь позади ключицы располагается сосудисто-нервный пучок, его синтопия спереди назад: Вена-Артерия-Нерв Подключичная вена является продолжением подмышечной вены, она сливается с внутренней яремной веной, образуя плечеголовную вену. Слияние правой и левой плечеголовных вен формирует верхнюю полую вену, которая впадает в правое предсердие. Подключичная артерия-её проекция соответствует ключице. Пальцевое прижатие выполняют через надключичную ямку с медиальной стороны, прижимая артерию сверху, вниз к первому ребру или задней стенке ключицы.

Introduction: Sciatic nerve is the largest peripheral nerve in human body which has overtime shown numerous anatomical variations either morphometric, pelvic exit patterns that have significant clinical consequences. Objective: The aim of this systematic review was to critically evaluate the morphometric characteristics and analyse variations of sciatic nerve in relation to exit patterns among African populations. Materials and Methods: Here a highly comprehensive literature search was conducted in multiple databases namely; PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, Google Scholar and majorly focusing on studies published across between January 2009 sciatic nerve-SN and May 2025. Thereafter, Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) was followed that yielded 18 eligible studies out of 268 that were initially identified. Findings: From these studies, it can be noted that variations of sciatic nerve in reference to level and type of SN bifurcation were significant. There was a further considerable relationship between SN, piriformis muscle and sexual dimorphism in nerve morphology. It was also noted that bifurcation of SN above or within piriformis was the most common having highly exhibited a pattern associated with piriformis syndrome and complication associated with hip and pelvic surgeries. Moreover, majority of these studies consistently demonstrated morphometric differences in sex and laterality which warrants surgical planning, nerve block procedures and clinical diagnosis. There was also a substantial heterogeneity across different African populations with its frequency ranging from 8% to over 30%. Conclusion: Therefore, systematic review points out urgent need for region-specific anatomical studies, standardization in classification systems, incorporation of SN anatomical variability into surgical education and practice. It is thereby, recommended that understanding these differences is crucial for diminishing intraoperative jeopardies. This would improve patient upshots in sciatic nerve-related interventions across African healthcare settings.

We report a case of acute embolic ischemia of the right lower limb in a patient with unexpected intraoperative anatomic variant of femoral artery. In this anomaly, the deep femoral artery arises from the external iliac artery, 2 cm above the inguinal ligament, runs with a parallel course with the superficial femoral artery, and placed between the branches of femoral nerve. In consideration of the difficulty to achieve extensive and optimal control of the external iliac artery with the femoral approach, a retrograde embolectomy of the iliac artery by two separate arteriotomies on the deep and superficial femoral arteries were successfully performed. The literature reviewed about this anomalies. In these unexpected intraoperative cases a ductile and ingenious approach seems to be mandatory to perform a safe operation with low systemic impact.

ccess to safe and timely surgical care remains profoundly inequitable, with nearly 5 billion people worldwide lacking essential surgical services. Sub-Saharan Africa bears a disproportionate burden, where over 95% of the population lacks access to basic surgical care, compared to near-universal coverage in high-income countries. This systematic review and metaanalysis synthesized evidence from 30 studies (2009-2025), of which 13 were eligible for quantitative pooling. A total of 2,983 surgeries across diverse cohorts were analyzed. The pooled postoperative complication rate was 20% (95% CI: 16-24%), with individual study rates ranging from 16.4% to 27.2%. Complication clustering was evident, with 6 of 9 studies reporting rates between 18% and 22%. Postoperative mortality pooled at 5.1% (95% CI: 4.1-6.2%), but heterogeneity was high (I² ≈ 78%) due to one pediatric-focused study that reported a mortality rate of 25.6% (32/125 patients). In contrast, most adult-focused studies reported mortality between 1.2% and 4.8%. Workforce density data underscored critical disparities, with East Africa reporting only 0.25 surgeons per 100,000 population, compared to 5.69 per 100,000 in high-income regions. Risk-of-bias assessment using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale showed 50% low risk, 37.5% moderate risk, and 25% high risk. These findings highlight a preventable gap, as an estimated 143 million additional surgical procedures are required annually to meet global needs. Strengthening the surgical workforce, investing in infrastructure, and expanding task-sharing programs are urgent priorities to reduce avoidable morbidity and mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Ethically responsible and culturally acceptable management, study, and stewardship of legacy skeletal and other human remains currently held and managed in scientific institutions is a longstanding concern that, over the length of these collections' existence, has been exiguously addressed. Most recently, the ethical treatment of legacy collections of individuals from the African American community in the United States has been especially highlighted. The American Association of Biological Anthropologists (AABA) created a Presidential Task Force to address these concerns about legacy collections in 2022 by drafting practices and recommendations for policies to be adopted by the AABA and sibling organizations. We report on the first ever convergent analysis of research priorities and perspectives on these topics from the communities of biological anthropologists and a national cross-section of African Americans. Based on the surveys and discussions with these communities, all groups expressed a desire to enter a mutual, formal partnership where descendant communities are empowered to make decisions about the study and disposition of legacy collections. Our recommendations focus on promoting dialogue between parties involved through partnerships where desired. To make this possible, institutions should inventory and determine provenance of remains in legacy collections, ascertain the identity of descendant communities, and contact those communities using guidelines we provide. We argue that a default position taken by researchers is that no research need occur without the explicit consent of relevant descendant communities or communities of care. Examples of successful community partnerships are provided, along with new practices in ethical engagement with descendant communities.

The vertebral column begins at the occipital bone and concludes with the coccyx, collectively forming the structure referred to as the Ṣulb, or spine. The vertebrae are relatively small in size and extend from the cervical region down to the coccyx, with the spinal cord being distinct from the brain. The cervical vertebrae are essential for facilitating a range of movements while maintaining stability, and their cavities are designed to be spacious, allowing the spinal cord to reside within them comfortably. The vertebrae have a distinctive thorn-like form, with each featuring two foramina located on its right and left sides. From each foramen, two processes extend; one connects to the upper vertebral foramen, while the other connects to the lower vertebral foramen. The closure of these foramina has enhanced stability and strength within the vertebral structure. Each vertebra is characterized by three analogous processes: one that extends upward and two that project laterally. A vertebra typically features four processes, with two located on the right and two on the left of the foramen. The processes serve the essential function of establishing articular connection between adjacent vertebrae, utilizing the cavities of some processes and the condyloid projections of others. They also provide protection, support, and resistance to impact, as well as facilitate the attachment of ligaments. The structures located at the posterior aspect of the vertebrae are referred to as spinous processes, while those situated laterally on the right and left are known as transverse processes. These processes serve to safeguard the nerves, blood vessels, and muscles that are situated deeper within the body along its length. The spinal cord's gradual reduction in thickness from top to bottom mirrors natural patterns found in rivers and trees, allowing for the emergence of nerve pairs from the intervertebral foramen. The cervical region comprises five cervical vertebrae, each characterized by four processes that extend both upward and downward. The twelve vertebrae of the spine are arranged such that each joint produces two upwardly extending processes, while two additional processes descend into corresponding pits that interlock with adjacent vertebrae. The research aims to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the complex anatomical framework of the vertebral column, as described by various esteemed scholars and notable philosophers from both Greek and Arab civilizations.

Актуальность и цель исследования: В системе охраны здоровья матери и ребенка острые респираторные заболевания (ОРЗ) занимают ведущее место по распространенности. Цель исследования-клинико-иммунологическая оценка эффективности природной белковой терапии в профилактике ОРЗ у матерей и детей в рамках рационального питания на примере населения г. Ферганы. Методы: Исследование проводилось в Ферганской городской детской больнице с участием 24 часто болеющих детей 1-5 лет. Участники были разделены на контрольную (n=12, традиционное питание) и опытную (n=12, природные белки и иммуномодулирующая диета) группы. Результаты: В опытной группе частота заболеваемости ОРЗ снизилась на 38% по сравнению с контрольной. Средняя продолжительность заболевания сократилась с 9 до 5 дней, значительно улучшились показатели «иммунологической стабильности» (в том числе секреторный IgA). Вывод: Природная белковая терапия, организованная с учетом всасывательной функции желудочно-кишечного тракта, является наиболее эффективной стратегией профилактики ОРЗ. Ключевые слова: острые респираторные заболевания, белковая терапия, рациональное питание, иммунодефицит, дети, желудочно-кишечный тракт, профилактика.

Background and Aim: Pathologically high levels of endogenous cortisol in children suppress the immune system, disrupt metabolism, and hinder psychophysiological development. The study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of nutritional and psycho-emotional approaches in reducing cortisol levels and preventing distress conditions in children among the population of Margilan city. Methods: The study involved 40 children (aged 1-3 years) with signs of distress at the Margilan City Children's Hospital. The control group (n=20) received standard care, while the experimental group (n=20) received individualized nutritional and psycho-emotional correction. Results: In the experimental group, the endogenous cortisol level was 26% lower than in the control group. Sleep disturbances and anxiety decreased by 1.8 times, and the psychomotor development coefficient increased. Conclusion: Controlling endogenous cortisol and applying nutritional therapy tailored to gastrointestinal absorption are the most effective methods for the preclinical prevention of distress.

Tadqiqotning dolzarbligi va maqsadi: Erta yoshdagi bolalarda o'tkir virusli infeksiyalar ko'pincha allergik asoratlar (obstruktiv bronxit, laringit) bilan kechadi. Tadqiqot maqsadi Farg'ona tumani hududiy oilaviy poliklinikasi amaliyotida 4 yoshgacha bo'lgan bolalarda virusli infeksiyalar vaqtida gistaminositologik (qizil mevalar) va sintetik (shirinliklar, rangli ichimliklar) mahsulotlarni cheklashning klinik samaradorligini baholashdan iborat. Metodlar: Tadqiqotda virusli infeksiyaga chalingan 4 yoshgacha bo'lgan 60 nafar bola kuzatildi. Nazorat guruhi (n=30) kasallik davrida qizil mevalar, shokolad, chupachups va rangli gazlangan ichimliklar iste'mol qilgan bo'lsa, tajriba guruhida (n=30) bu mahsulotlar qat'iyan cheklanib, toza suv rejimi joriy etildi. Natijalar: Allergik mahsulotlar iste'mol qilgan guruhda obstruktiv bronxit, stridor va diatez kabi asoratlar uchrashi 70-90% ga ortib, kasallik og'ir kechdi. Tajriba guruhida esa kasallik ancha yengil o'tdi. Xulosa: Virusli infeksiyalar vaqtida ichak devorining neytrallash xususiyati (baryer funksiyasi) pasayadi. Shu sababli, allergen mahsulotlar zararsizlantirilmasdan qonga o'tishining oldini olish uchun bemor bolalar ratsionini qat'iy nazorat qilish eng samarali profilaktik strategiya hisoblanadi. Kalit so'zlar: o'tkir virusli infeksiyalar, bolalar, oziq-ovqat allergiyasi, ichak o'tkazuvchanligi, obstruktiv bronxit, stridor, oilaviy poliklinika.

Background and Aim: In modern pediatrics, the role of digital technologies in the early detection of children's functional digestive disorders is growing. The study aims to clinically evaluate the effectiveness of nutritional correction using Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies in preventing gastrointestinal disorders among children in Margilan city. Methods: The study was conducted at the Margilan City Children's Hospital involving 30 children (0-2 years) with GI problems. They were divided into an experimental group (n=15, AI-based individual diet considering gestational age and enzymatic activity) and a control group (n=15, traditional recommendations). Results: Accurate calculation of nutritional status via AI improved digestive processes by 36%, reduced the risk of dyspeptic disorders by 2.6 times, and stabilized weight gain dynamics by 18%. Conclusion: Individual analysis of the child's gestational age and enzymatic capabilities using AI is the most effective modern strategy for preventing GI tract disorders.

Background
Congenital vertical talus (CVT), also known as congenital convex pes valgus, is a rare orthopaedic deformity affecting approximately 1 in 10 000 live births. Neglected CVT (NCVT) cases pose a significant challenge in treatment due to the rigid and severe nature of the deformity, which often resists conservative management and requires extensive surgical intervention. Despite the importance of treating NCVT, the evaluation of their surgical outcomes in Zagazig University Hospital was limited, hence this was the aim of the current study.
Methods
This retrospective study was conducted on children with NCVT who presented to the university hospital during the period March 2019 to January 2023. The surgical technique included a singlestage correction performed through three incisions (medial, lateral and posterior) to provide comprehensive access for soft tissue release, tendon lengthening, and joint stabilisation. In two severe cases, naviculectomy was performed to achieve adequate reduction and medial–lateral arch balance. Preoperative assessment of cases included thorough clinical and radiological assessments. Data was collected, revised, coded and statistically analysed.
Results
The study included 24 feet from 16 children with NCVT, ten males and six females, with half the cases presenting as bilateral deformities. The patients’ mean age was 31.6 ± 3.8 months. Postoperatively, all feet showed satisfactory improvement with successful alignment and restoration of foot mechanics as evidenced by clinical appearance and function as well as radiological parameters. Surgical complications were minimal, with only four feet (17%) experiencing wound ischaemia due to pulling on the skin. No cases of infection or avascular necrosis were noted.
Conclusion
Single-stage surgical correction can be the best option in cases of NCVT that may miss longterm follow-up treatment with more stages. The outcomes highlight the efficacy of this surgical approach in achieving functional and plantigrade feet, even in complex and neglected cases of CVT. Further studies with larger numbers of patients and long-term follow-up are recommended to confirm the current findings and investigate long-term outcomes.

Human populations have sought relief from dental caries for millennia, with treatments spanning from rituals banishing tooth worms to more modern preparations and fillings. Here we present an intracoronal dental preparation in individual G-334 from the historic First Baptist Church of Philadelphia assemblage (FBCP; c. 1722-1859 CE). This discovery is among the earliest known evidence to date of a therapeutic dental modification demonstrating operative dentistry principles. We undertook an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating archaeological, osteological, isotopic, dental, and imaging techniques, to evaluate this finding. Archaeological and osteological analyses revealed G-334 as a young adult (18-24 years) male buried in a simple coffin without grave goods. Skeletal pathologies consistent with infectious or metabolic disease were observed, though stable isotope data revealed a diet similar to the larger FBCP population (see McGuire et al. 2025) suggesting dietary resiliency during this historic period. Analyses of the molar via photogrammetry, 3D modeling, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed features consistent with classic preparation principles first described in G.V. Black’s Manual of Operative Dentistry in 1896. Complex morphology, including converging proximal walls and isthmus width, suggest intentional use of a powerful drill for mechanical retention and structural integrity. Framboidal pyrite suggests the former presence of an amalgam filling containing mercury, silver, or other metals. Together, these findings underscore the clinical complexity of caries preparations in the past and highlight the significance and skill required to treat these lesions – skills which appear earlier within the historical record than previously thought.

Background: The morphological development of human fetal kidney have been subject of increased awareness for the assessment of fetal growth and development in a high risk pregnancy, prematurely delivered normal baby and also in prenatal diagnosis of renal diseases and possible intervention. Objectives: The aim of the study was to determine the morphological development of the kidneys during the fetal period. Methods: The present study was carried out in the department of Anatomy, Regional Institute of Medical Sciences, Imphal, Manipur. The material for the study consisted of 60 spontaneously aborted and still born human fetal specimens free from any gross congenital anomalies with gestational age between 11th to 38th weeks were collected from Obstetrics and Gynaecology Department, RIMS. The kidneys were taken out from fetal specimens and studied. Results: Surface of the kidney is found to be lobulated from 13 weeks of gestation with gradual increase in lobulation and maximum number of lobulation was observed at 30 weeks thereafter a declination was noticed till the term pregnancy. The kidney of 11th and 38th weeks of gestation was observed to have smooth surface without any surface lobulation. Shape of the pyramid changes from nodular to triangular with advancing gestational age except at 11th of gestational age where the pyramid is not identifiable. Conclusions: The present work made an initial attempt to analyze the morphological growth pattern of kidney in human fetuses, which may prove useful in defining the prematurely delivered normal baby, high risk pregnancies and fetal kidney diseases and age determination of fetuses during post mortem autopsy.

Introduction: Micro vasculature of kidney undergoes a continual and mutually dependent developmental changes through which obtains its structural and functional maturity. It is very important to know the normal developmental anatomy of kidney micro vasculature in prenatal diagnosis of renal anomalies, genetic counseling and treatment of prenatal renal disorders like Wilm's tumor, multicystic renal dysplasia. Present study was undertaken to study the micro vasculature of the kidney at different stages of development during fetal life. Materials And Method: The present study was carried out in the department of Anatomy, Regional Institute of Medical Sciences, Imphal, Manipur. The material for the study consisted of 60 spontaneously aborted and still born human fetal specimens free from any gross congenital anomalies with gestational age between 11th to 38thweeks were collected from Obstetrics and Gynaecology department, RIMS after taking permission from the Institutional Ethics Committee and categorized into 4 groups as Group-A(11-20 weeks), Group-B(21-27 weeks),Group-C(28-33 week), Group-D(34-38 weeks) .The kidneys were taken out from fetal specimens, fixed, processed, stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin, observed under the Microscope and micro photographed. Conclusion: Knowledge on microvascular development on fetal kidney will be helpful for possible intervention in prematurely delivered normal baby with possible prognosis as premature delivery is very common now a days and also in prenatal diagnosis of kidney diseases.

Introduction: Micro vasculature of kidney undergoes a continual and mutually dependent developmental changes through which obtains its structural and functional maturity. It is very important to know the normal developmental anatomy of kidney micro vasculature in prenatal diagnosis of renal anomalies, genetic counseling and treatment of prenatal renal disorders like Wilm's tumor, multicystic renal dysplasia. Present study was undertaken to study the micro vasculature of the kidney at different stages of development during fetal life. Materials And Method: The present study was carried out in the department of Anatomy, Regional Institute of Medical Sciences, Imphal, Manipur. The material for the study consisted of 60 spontaneously aborted and still born human fetal specimens free from any gross congenital anomalies with gestational age between 11th to 38thweeks were collected from Obstetrics and Gynaecology department, RIMS after taking permission from the Institutional Ethics Committee and categorized into 4 groups as Group-A(11-20 weeks), Group-B(21-27 weeks),Group-C(28-33 week), Group-D(34-38 weeks) .The kidneys were taken out from fetal specimens, fixed, processed, stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin, observed under the Microscope and micro photographed. Conclusion: Knowledge on microvascular development on fetal kidney will be helpful for possible intervention in prematurely delivered normal baby with possible prognosis as premature delivery is very common now a days and also in prenatal diagnosis of kidney diseases.

Entre los planteamientos de Vasco, uno de los más vibrantes, desafiadores y originales en el contexto de la antropología colombiana es el del pensamiento telúrico del indio y las cosas-concepto. Fruto de años de trabajo etnográfico y su permanente cotejo con la  teoría  marxista  del  conocimiento,  Vasco  arriba  al  entendimiento  de  que  las  sociedades  indígenas  colombianas,  semejantes  a  aquellas  llamadas  por  Marx  y  Engels  como  primitivas,  presentan  una  estructura mental que no solo difiere en contenido o  grado  de  la  estructura  mental  de  la  sociedad  burguesa, como lo plantea el idealismo levi-straus-siano  y  seguidores.  Por  el  contrario,  Vasco  insiste  permanentemente en que aquellas sociedades indí-genas  presentan  una  organización  mental  cualita-tivamente  diferente,  donde  uno  de  los  rasgos  más  característicos  es  la  indiferenciación  del  pensa-miento de la materia. Tras la conceptualización de este  planteamiento,  el  presente  trabajo  se  remite  a  las  bases  epistemológicas  que  dieron  sustento  teórico-metodológico  al  etnógrafo  colombiano,  argumentando  que  fue  gracias  al  estudio  de  la psicología  genética,  principalmente  a  Jean  Piaget  y  Heinz  Werner,  que  el  antropólogo  marxista  llegó  al  mencionado  planteamiento.  Además,  se  señalan  los  hallazgos  pioneros  de  Vasco  en  el  contexto  de  la  psicología  genética  internacional  de  la  segunda  mitad  del  siglo  XX  y  se  señala  de  manera crítica el soterramiento de esta perspectiva en su obra más tardía.

Mermaids—enigmatic beings that are half human and half fish—can be
traced back to the Neolithic period, which spanned approximately 10,000
BC to 2,000 BC during the worship of the Mother Goddess. Understanding
this historical context can shed light on the medical and cultural
connections surrounding these creatures. This essay examines compelling
evidence of mermaids from Bronze Age civilisations, particularly in
Assyrian-Babylonian, Hindu, and later Graeco-Roman cultures, as well as
their representation in medieval bestiaries. It also discusses a connection
between mermaids and a rare congenital malformation known as
sirenomelia or caudal regression syndrome in modern medical
classifications. The study is based on medical observations and research
conducted from the 16th century onward, which began to identify
congenital malformations among so-called "monsters" as science shed new
light on ancient myths.

The aim of this article is to show methods for dissection of the neck. In the summer of 2017 a group of students of the University of Palermo that have already passed the exam of Human Anatomy took a 4 weeks dissection course at the University of Malta. The students were provided with a dissection kit, video recording equipment and cameras for taking pictures. They dissected the skin, the subcutaneous tissue, the muscular bundles, the muscles, the vascular and nervous bundles, the nerves, the larynx, the trachea and the esophagus. This paper presents the results of the dissection course and a small and simple guide to young students and medical doctors who want to learn the bases of neck dissection. © EuroMediterranean Biomedical Journal 2018

Background: Some studies suggested that teaching anatomy with a virtual reality simulator would greatly enhance medical education. The purpose of this work is to analyze the available literature to determine the effectiveness of virtual reality as a learning tool for anatomy teaching in medical schools. Materials and Methods: This literature review was completed in accordance with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines on 7.9.2022. The three databases that were utilized were Google Scholar, Cochrane, and PubMed. After performing the search utilizing the listed guidelines, two independent researchers shared and debated their individual lists, ultimately combining them and applying further exclusion criteria. This resulted in two remaining articles which addressed the research question. Results: One of the most notable findings in both articles is that students who utilized virtual reality in their anatomy learning demonstrated improvement in their understanding of structure locations and spatial relationships. Additionally, student’s ability to read and understand diagnostic imaging markedly improved for images presented both on exams and in face-to-face settings following virtual reality-based learning interventions. Virtual reality technology also increased interest in anatomy when utilized in the anatomy classroom, though this interest was limited to the anatomic region(s) in which the virtual reality sessions focused. Discussion/Limitations: Due to the scarcity of topically relevant results, this particular systematic review is unable to express anything beyond potential promise in the use of virtual reality-based interventions in the medical school anatomy classroom. As virtual reality technologies have been shown to potentially add benefit in these applications, there is reason to believe that new literature will become available in the near future.

Aim of the study was to develop a 'composite body size score' (CBSS) using anthropometric traits to estimate body size and to assess the nutritional status of each study individual on the basis of CBSS. Data on seventeen anthropometric traits were collected from 710 individuals (Male, Female) from fishermen community inhabiting coastal villages of West Bengal, India. For estimating body sizes, Structural Equation Model (SEM) was constructed with Path Analysis (PA). Later, second order Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was applied on SEM to determine CBSS. It was hypothesized in the models that CBSS is composed with three sets of latent variables viz., linear, circular and skinfold, constructed from anthropometric traits. Applying new derived optimal cut off points of CBSS was used to determine lean, normal and robust body sizes. Individuals with negative values of CBSS were categorised as lean body size,. Positive values of CBSS were categorised into two categories-normal and robust body size. On the basis of CBSS, result showed that 50.6%, 48.8% and 0.6% of the individuals were categorised under lean, normal and robust body size respectively. Females showed relatively higher percent of lean body size i.e. under nutrition (73.8%) compared to males (26.2%). The hypothesized model estimate more accurate composite body size score, based on anthropometric traits. All the traits are highly significant on the model. The lean body size category can be use in predicting 'Undernutrition'.

Background:Ear morphology can be used for facial identification and reconstructive ear surgeries. This study was aimed at photoanalytically determining some parameters of the external ear. Method: 514 subjects (16-30 years) comprising 258 males and 256 females were selected using simple random sampling technique. Total ear length (TEL), Total ear width (TEW), Total lobe width (TLW), Total lobular height (TLH) was measured and analyzed. Results: Males were observed to have higher TEL, TEW ear parameters than females, Females were also observed to have a longer TLH than males for both sides of the ear: All measured parameters in both sex showed higher values on the right side than the left, right lobular index was also found to be statistically higher (P < 0.05) when compared to the left one Conclusion: TEL and TEW measured from all angle are correlated and can be used to determine sex. It can also aid biological profiling, facial recognition from security cameras, planning of cosmetic surgery and product design for specific consumer auricular requirements.

Ultrasonography (US) is a nonirradiating, low-cost, real-time imaging modality that has very good spatial resolution. US can be used to view the anterolateral ligament (ALL) and injuries to the ALL. Several authors have sought to analyze the anterolateral aspect of the knee using US with varying luck. All of them analyzed the ALL statically only. The goal of this Technical Note is to describe in detail the technique that we use to analyze the anterolateral aspect of the knee in patients with an anterior cruciate ligament tear. We use a simple technique that starts by locating the tibial end of the ALL. The lateral inferior genicular artery is a reliable landmark in this context. The analysis is dynamic in addition to being static. To determine if the ALL is injured, we look for a lack of tension on the ALL when the knee is internally rotated and for a Segond fracture. We believe that it is essential to start evaluating the ALL by its tibial end. US analysis of the ALL forms the basis for developing an appropriate "à la carte" treatment for the patient's injury.

Ultrasonography (US) is a nonirradiating, low-cost, real-time imaging modality that has very good spatial resolution. US can be used to view the anterolateral ligament (ALL) and injuries to the ALL. Several authors have sought to analyze the anterolateral aspect of the knee using US with varying luck. All of them analyzed the ALL statically only. The goal of this Technical Note is to describe in detail the technique that we use to analyze the anterolateral aspect of the knee in patients with an anterior cruciate ligament tear. We use a simple technique that starts by locating the tibial end of the ALL. The lateral inferior genicular artery is a reliable landmark in this context. The analysis is dynamic in addition to being static. To determine if the ALL is injured, we look for a lack of tension on the ALL when the knee is internally rotated and for a Segond fracture. We believe that it is essential to start evaluating the ALL by its tibial end. US analysis of the ALL forms the basi...

Background: This paper reports a descriptive survey carried out to assess the level of awareness of students on the method of plastination and its possible implications in the rollout and utilization of this learning resource in the Anatomy Department. In view of the recognized challenge emanating from a cadaveric material shortage across anatomy departments in South African Medical Schools, and the unevenness in the bequeathal program across the different regions, it has become imperative to examine other alternatives towards boosting the delivery of the subject of anatomy without undue reliance on cadavers. Methods: The evaluation data consist of two hundred and sixty-one students across the six disciplines in the Schools of Health Sciences and Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences of the University of KwaZulu Natal who volunteered to participate in the survey. Constructs were designed to probe basic bio-geographic data as well as specific aspects relating to plastination with regards to the awareness and possible insights into its relevance or otherwise. Results: This evaluation has identified that the awareness and use of plastinated specimens as an additional learning resource in anatomy remains very low. This was reflected on major probes such as the likelihood to learn the technique (11.88%), if it could replace cadavers (20.99%), if plastinates were better than cadavers (23.75%) and preference to be examined using plastinates (2.3%). Conclusion: There is low awareness on plastinated specimens and hence greater need for more advocacy on the plastination process to develop the needed passion to embrace the technique by students.

Esta infografía presenta un recorrido sintético y analítico por las principales etapas de la historia de la educación, desde la Edad Antigua hasta la educación contemporánea, destacando los cambios en los fines, enfoques pedagógicos y concepciones del aprendizaje a lo largo del tiempo. A través de una periodización histórica clara —Edad Antigua, Media, Moderna, siglo XIX y educación contemporánea—, el material muestra cómo la educación ha sido una construcción social vinculada a contextos políticos, culturales y económicos específicos. El trabajo integra ejemplos representativos como la paideia griega, la universidad medieval, el humanismo pedagógico, el conductismo y los enfoques centrados en el estudiante, con el propósito de facilitar la comprensión visual y conceptual de la evolución educativa. La infografía se apoya en fuentes clásicas de la historia de la educación y la pedagogía, y está orientada a estudiantes y docentes de ciencias de la educación interesados en una visión histórica crítica y accesible del campo educativo.

During routine cadaver dissection two different sural nerve formations were observed in the 64-year-old male cadaver. Clinically, sural nerve is largely used in biopsy and as a graft in nerve transplantations. Therefore, knowing about the course, formation pattern and variations of sural nerve are important for the abovementioned procedures, as well as explaining the different clinical findings. © IJAV. 2010; 3: 118-121.

The topographical distribution of sciatic and femoral nerve sensory neuronal somata in the L4 dorsal root ganglion of the adult rat was mapped after retrograde tracing with one or two of the dyes Fast Blue, Fluoro-Gold, or Diamidino Yellow. The tracers were applied to the proximal transected end of either nerve alone, or from both nerves in the same animal using separate tracers. Three-dimensional reconstructions of the distribution of labelled neurones were made from serial sections of the L4 dorsal root ganglion which is the only ganglion that these two nerves share. The results showed that with little overlap, femoral nerve neurones distribute dorsally and rostrally whereas sciatic nerve neurones distribute medially and ventrally. This finding show an example which indicates the existence of a somatotopical organisation for the representation of different peripheral nerves in dorsal root ganglia of adult animals.

The distribution in dorsal root ganglia of neurones which innervate the distal tips of the hindlimb digits in the rat were mapped after subcutaneous injections of the fluorescent tracers Fast Blue, Diamidino Yellow and Fluoro-Gold into different digits. Three-dimensional reconstruction was used to describe the intraganglionic distribution of neurones labelled from different digits. Labelled neurones were found mainly in the L3-L5 ganglia. The distribution in ganglia as well as the number of neurones labelled from each digit varied considerably between cases, but mean numbers of labelled neurones were similar for the different digits. Neurones in L3 tended to innervate medial digits and neurones in L5 tended to innervate lateral digits, but most neurones from any digit were found in L4. Although overlap was considerable, the threedimensional reconstruction revealed tendencies of neurones to be distributed in restricted territories within the dorsal root ganglia. This was especially clear in ganglion L5 where digit IV was found to be represented more rostrally than digit V. The results indicate that primary afferent neurones which innervate the hind limb digits are represented by a crude rostrocaudal somatotopic organisation both among and within lumbar dorsal root ganglia.

Introduccion: El bienestar fisico y psicologico es importante para una adecuada formacion profesional, y un buen desempeno academico en estudiantes universitarios. Se han descrito multiples factores que pueden afectarlo, entre los que se encuentran las expectativas e historial academico del estudiante. Objetivo: Identificar las reacciones fisicas y psicologicas mas frecuentes ante la diseccion cadaverica en una universidad peruana. Metodos: Se realizo un estudio observacional, descriptivo y transversal, en estudiantes de del curso de anatomia en una facultad de medicina peruana. Se aplico una encuesta compuesta por cuatro secciones. La primera de ellas, exploro las caracteristicas generales (edad, sexo y procedencia) de los estudiantes. Las siguientes 3 secciones constaron de una escala Likert de 4 opciones donde se evaluaron las reacciones fisicas, psicologicas y las perturbaciones generadas en la practica de anatomia. Resultados: Las reacciones fisicas mas frecuentes fueron: males...

Objective: Comparative evaluation of the location of mental foramen in different age groups. Determine the variation in position of mental foramen with gender using digital panoramic radiography. Materials and Methods: Digital panoramic radiographs of 250 patients were reviewed. The study population was divided into five age groups with 50 patients each. Radiographic position of mental foramen was evaluated in each radiograph based on three parameters. Measurements were taken in each radiograph using Planmeca Dimaxis pro version 4.4.0 (Helsinki, Finland). The collected data were subjected to statistical analysis using paired Student&#39;s t-test. Results: The mean distance of position of mental foramen showed a significant variation within the five age groups. In the first group, female patients showed an increase in mean distance of mental foramen position in relation to three parameters. From the second to fifth groups, male patient showed an increase in the mean distance of menta...