International Trade Policy

The level of productivity of sugarcane farms in the Visayas area was high, and a significant difference indicates the level of productivity of sugarcane farms when grouped by location. The level of productivity of sugarcane farming in the Visayas, in terms of indicators such as the size of farm, type of soil, land topography, average rainfall received, distance of farm to the sugar mill, farming innovations, workers' availability, and expenses per hectare, was low productivity. Significant differences in the productivity of sugarcane farming at the different locations in terms of size of farm, land topography, distance of the farm to the sugar mill, farming innovations, workers' availability, and expenses per hectare, except for the type of soil and average rainfall.

This essay analyzes the macroeconomic consequences of a contradictory policy mix: the simultaneous imposition of tariffs to eliminate a bilateral trade deficit alongside a large public deficit. Utilizing fundamental national accounting identities ($CA = S - I$) and the Mundell-Fleming framework under a flexible exchange rate regime, the paper argues that tariffs alone cannot rectify an overall current account deficit when fiscal profligacy drives down national savings.

Infrastructure investment is widely viewed as a catalyst for economic transformation, yet many large-scale projects fail to generate sustained value. This paper examines this paradox through Nigeria's inland waterways, focusing on the 2009-2012 Warri-Baro dredging project. Despite substantial public investment and technical completion, the project failed to deliver commercial navigation or economic impact. The paper advances a system alignment framework, arguing that infrastructure performance is a multiplicative function of three conditions: institutional coordination, demand anchoring, and technical sustainability (P = I × D × T). Using a qualitative case study and comparative analysis with China, USA, Netherlands, Europe, and Brazil, the study shows that the Warri-Baro project suffered from mis-sequenced investment, fragmented governance, the absence of binding cargo commitments, and a technically inadequate design in a dynamic hydrological environment. Political economy factors-corruption, policy discontinuity, elite capture-are specified as moderating conditions rather than core dimensions. These misalignments produced infrastructure that existed in form but not in function. Comparative analysis demonstrates that successful inland waterways operate as integrated economic and institutional ecosystems. Evidence suggests that reengineering Nigeria's Niger-Benue system through coordinated governance, engineered infrastructure (locks and canalization rather than dredging), and industrial integration could reduce freight costs by 60-70% and generate US$1.08 billion in annual transport cost savings. The framework may be generalizable to rail, energy, and logistics networks, though this requires empirical testing beyond the waterways focus of the present study.

This paper examines the India–New Zealand Free Trade Agreement (FTA) as a structured and multidimensional framework that extends beyond conventional tariff liberalisation. Drawing exclusively on official government documentation from both countries, the study analyses the agreement’s provisions across goods trade, services, mobility, sectoral cooperation and regulatory alignment.

The paper highlights the asymmetric yet calibrated nature of liberalisation, with New Zealand providing full duty-free access to Indian exports while India adopts a selective and phased approach that protects sensitive sectors such as dairy and agriculture. It further explores the agreement’s distinctive features, including mobility pathways for skilled professionals and students, cooperation in agriculture productivity, mutual recognition in organic products, integration of traditional knowledge systems such as AYUSH, and the creation of a food processing corridor linking New Zealand inputs with India’s export-oriented manufacturing.

The analysis situates the FTA within a broader transformation in global trade agreements, where the focus increasingly includes value chain integration, human capital mobility, sustainability and institutional cooperation. It argues that the agreement represents a model of calibrated openness, combining market access with domestic protection, and short-term trade facilitation with long-term structural engagement.

The paper concludes that the India–New Zealand FTA should be understood not in terms of current trade volume, but as a forward-looking compact that strengthens economic connectivity, supports diversified growth and contributes to evolving trade architectures within the Indo-Pacific region.

This article examines the trade policies and regional integration strategies of the United States, highlighting their impact on both domestic industries and international commerce. The analysis covers tariffs, import quotas, export subsidies, and other trade barriers, as well as the role of bilateral and multilateral agreements, including the U.S.-Australia partnership and the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA). The study demonstrates how these instruments aim to protect domestic employment, support strategic industries, and enhance the competitiveness of U.S. businesses in the global market. Furthermore, the article discusses the economic and social implications of these policies, emphasizing the balance between promoting international trade and safeguarding national interests. Overall, this research provides insights into the strategic design of trade policies and the significance of regional and international economic integration for the United States.

To promote postpandemic recovery, many countries have adopted economic packages that include fiscal, monetary, and financial policy measures; however, the effects of these policies may not be known for several years or more. There is an opportunity for decision makers to learn from past policies that facilitated recovery from other disease outbreaks, crises, and natural disasters that have had a devastating effect on economies around the world. To support the development of the United Nations Research Roadmap for COVID-19 Recovery, this review examined and synthesized peer-reviewed studies and gray literature that focused on macroeconomic policy responses and multilateral coalition strategies from past pandemics and crises to provide a map of the existing evidence. We conducted a systematic search of academic and gray literature databases. After screening, we found 22 records that were eligible for this review. The evidence found demonstrates that macroeconomic and multilateral coalition strategies have various impacts on a diverse set of countries and populations. Although the studies were heterogeneous in nature, most did find positive results for macroeconomic intervention policies that addressed investments to strengthen health and social protection systems, specifically cash and unconventional/nonstandard monetary measures, in-kind transfers, social security financing, and measures geared toward certain population groups.

This paper analyses the impact of the manufacturing sector on economic growth in Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia and Uganda using World Bank national accounts panel data for the period 2000-21. During the two decades, the share of the sector's growth to gross domestic growth remained low. Agriculture and service sector accounted for the greatest share in the growth of the economies being studied. The study uses fixed effects regression for analysis. Results show that manufacturing sector promotes economic growth in line with Kaldor's first law. The findings suggest the need to support and strengthen infrastructure and working environment for manufacturing firms, as well as woo more firms especially in areas of comparative advantage.

This article examines the engagement of domestic actors in public conversation surrounding free trade negotiations with a focus on the framing of these negotiations as economic, strategic or domestic issues. To analyse this topic, this article utilises the use of Twitter as a barometer of public sentiment toward the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). We employ topic classification and sentiment analysis to understand how RCEP is discussed in 345,015 tweets. Our findings show that the overall sentiment score towards RCEP is neutral. However, we find that when RCEP is discussed as a strategic issue, the sentiment is slightly more negative than when discussed as a domestic or economic issue. This article further suggests that discussion of RCEP is driven by the fear of China’s geopolitical ambitions, domestic protectionist agendas, and impact of RCEP on the domestic economy. This article contributes to the growing use of big data in understanding trade negotiations. Fu...

Background: This paper is related to the current stage of development in the Western Balkans. Despite becoming growing instruments to finance sustainable green development, debt swaps and social or sustainability bonds are relative novelties in this region. At the same time, the development needs are huge, especially in the light of the COVID-19 aftermath. Results: The review of both historic financial instruments, such as the debt for nature swaps, and more recent ones, such as sustainability bonds in its variations, highlight the potential for use in developing countries. The relatively recent case from Montenegro and the recent issuance of the green bond in Serbia showcase the possibilities. The focus of this paper is an analysis of the public debt position of Western Balkan countries. The growing level of public debt over the past decade points to a lack of adequate interventions and a relatively imminent need for fiscal consolidation. The research suggests that environmental, social, governance/sustainability-linked bonds and debt-for-climate swap investments as innovative financial instruments that hold promise in leveraging additional finance to support the sustainability goals of the six countries of the Western Balkans. This influx of capital would be particularly advantageous, given their needs relative to EU accession and their economic and structural challenges. The recommendations for policymakers are derived based on the history and features of green bonds as well as debt-for-nature swaps and their diverse underlying mechanisms which are adaptable to the respective countries. Conclusions: The related countries would benefit from exploring more innovative approaches to finance sustainable societies. In close cooperation with the EU and taking the European Green Deal into consideration, it is recommended that the six countries of the Western Balkans design financing mechanisms that will bring increased transparency to the different policies and more accountability for their implementation. Applying the recommended modality may help keep the problem of the public debt at bay, while additional funds may support implementation of structural reforms.

This study offers an empirical microlevel analysis of the pass-through effects of the East African Community Common External Tariff on consumer prices in Kenya. Using data from the Kenya Integrated Household Budget Surveys conducted in 2005 and 2015, this research employs a fixed-effects model to estimate pass-through equations. The analysis focuses on consumer prices for agricultural and manufactured goods. It also considers household residential classifications, distinguishing between rural and urban areas, and it investigates the impact of border proximity and transportation costs on the pass-through effect. The findings show that manufactured goods have a significant pass-through effect. A 1% change in tariffs results in a 0.84% change in consumer prices for manufactured goods. However, the pass-through effects for agricultural goods were incomplete, suggesting that markets for manufactured goods are more competitive in Kenya. The study also found that pass-through effects vary ...

This policy brief analyzes the urgent issue of humanitarian catastrophes (versus humanitarian emergencies) and its relationship with the mandate of the G20 and the priorities of the Brazilian Presidency. To this end, and in light of the cases of Ukraine and Gaza, the authors explore the extent to which the G20 could adopt a new role in the issuearea of international security crises, specifically linked to humanitarian catastrophes. In the midst of the persistent deadlock among member states in the United Nations system and the lack of a common foreign policy within the G20 regarding humanitarian action in these countries, they advocate the creation of a Working Group on Responses to Humanitarian Catastrophes (WG-RHC) within the G20 Sherpa Track. In this regard, the brief identifies three possible scenarios: one related to possible resistance from some G20 members to this initiative; another to do with its technical and legal operationalization that compliments the work of U.N. humanitarian bodies; and a third regarding the protection of children in the field of health and food security.

La regulación económica es una restricción legal que se impone a los agentes que participan en un mercado (como por ejemplo, el mercado de bienes y servicios o el mercado de capitales). Sin embargo, un aspecto relevante es que la regulación solo queda justificada ante la presencia de fallas de mercado que surgen por la presencia de externalidades, existencia de bienes públicos, falla de la competencia, asimetrías de la información y mercados incompletos. Por otro lado, cada vez existe un mayor consenso en que los mercados y las empresas privadas constituyen la clave del éxito de una economía, y que el Estado desempeña un rol importante como complemento del mercado. No obstante, el accionar de los gobiernos de turno continúa siendo un motivo de controversias dentro de la pugna ideológica en el mundo. En tal sentido, a continuación el presente artículo, analiza los antecedentes, el fundamentalismo de mercado, las fallas de mercado y regulación económica, el papel económico del Estado, y finalmente, el equilibrio entre Estado y mercado.

Several critical textbooks have been recently published, emphasising the real-world and pluralism over mathematical technicalities. These include Komlos (2023), which emphasises real-world economics; Cohn (2007), an earlier book that adopts a critical approach; Myatt (2023), Schneider (2023), Van den Berg (2024) and Mitchell et al. (2019), which provides pluralist alternatives through pluralism, and modern monetary theory (MMT) respectively. Neoclassical economists are often unaware of these alternate perspectives. Additionally, inertia often prevents them from the perceived daunting task of incorporating alternate perspectives in their pedagogy. Thus, the purpose of this synoptic review is to provide easy access to key real-world and pluralist ideas and to facilitate incorporation of such alternate perspectives in introductory/principles of macroeconomics.

This study reexamines the relationship between globalization, foreign direct investment (FDI), and economic performance in the evolving world trade system. Using data from 1971-2023, it challenges the conventional view that greater globalization invariably enhances exports and GDP per capita. Findings reveal structural limits: beyond a certain threshold of FDI net outflows (% of GDP), the positive effects of globalization diminish, leading to stagnating trade and wealth creation. The research introduces the concept of an optimal FDI rate, offering a theoretical framework to explain why excessive capital mobility can destabilize national economies under deglobalization pressures, geopolitical shocks, and protectionist trends. This contribution advances trade theory by reframing globalization as a bounded process requiring strategic governance. The study calls for international policies that calibrate FDI flows to sustain export competitiveness and inclusive growth, positioning economic coordination as essential for resilience in today's fragmented global market. .

The SACU and US trade relationship continues to be dominated by AGOA. Given the lingering uncertainty surrounding its renewal post-2025, this article recommends the SACU to be proactive and reengage the US in the negotiation of a reciprocal trade agreement that builds on AGOA and deepens the parties’ trade relationships. However, trade negotiation processes can be challenging. The literature on product-level prioritization specifically designed to inform trade negotiations is also sparse. Hence, this article proposes a product-level prioritization method, suggested for implementation in the preparation phase of the bilateral trade negotiation process. The method can be applied in any bilateral trade negotiation setting.

Abstract

The ongoing Palestine conflict extends far beyond regional geopolitics; it is a global economic event reshaping the dynamics of energy markets, trade flows, and financial stability. This paper examines how the recurring cycles of violence in the Middle East—one of the world’s most strategic energy corridors—affect global oil prices, supply chain reliability, and international trade relations. Using qualitative analysis supported by secondary economic data, the study explores the ripple effects on inflation, fiscal balances, and investor confidence in both developed and developing economies. Particular attention is given to the reconfiguration of energy alliances, the shifts in maritime trade routes through the Suez Canal, and the strategic responses of major powers and energy importers. The findings suggest that the Palestine conflict has become a catalyst for broader economic realignments, driving diversification of energy sources, regional partnerships, and protectionist trade measures. Ultimately, this paper argues that the true cost of the conflict is not only humanitarian but systemic—exposing the fragility of global interdependence and underscoring the urgent need for economic resilience and diplomatic reform in an increasingly volatile world.

This study quantitatively investigates the role of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in shaping Africa's and specifically Liberia's trade patterns from 2000 to 2023, focusing on sectoral distribution, regional disparities, and institutional mediators. Drawing on a 23-year panel dataset covering 40 African countries, the research integrates fixed-effects regression, the Gravity Model of Trade, and Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) metrics to measure export diversification outcomes. Empirical results reveal that extractive FDI remains dominant-constituting 65% of Africa's total inflows and accounting for over 60% of export revenue-yet it exhibits negligible impact on trade diversification (p = 0.58). In contrast, manufacturing FDI shows statistically significant positive effects on diversification (β = 0.30, p < 0.05), with Ethiopia's textile sector alone contributing to a six-fold increase in exports between 2015 and 2023. In Liberia, the FDI profile mirrors continental patterns, with over 70% of export earnings still derived from iron ore, rubber, and timber. Despite recent FDI into energy and agro-processing, Liberia's export diversification index remains high (HHI = 0.82), reflecting extreme product concentration. Panel regression further indicates that institutional quality (β = 0.25, p < 0.01) and infrastructure (β = 0.19, p < 0.05) significantly enhance the positive trade effects of FDI. Gravity Model estimates demonstrate that intra-African trade remains low, with only 15% of FDI flowing into regional value chains, suggesting untapped potential under AfCFTA. For instance, South-South investments (e.g., Shoprite and MTN) increased local sourcing by 20%, while Nigeria and Ghana's $2.4 billion joint energy project boosted regional power trade by 12%. The study concludes that sector-specific FDI-particularly in manufacturing and technology-yields more sustainable trade benefits than resource-based investments. It proposes a Sustainable FDI Framework incorporating environmental, social, and institutional variables into traditional trade models. The findings challenge conventional FDI-led growth assumptions by demonstrating that spillovers are not automatic but mediated by governance and policy alignment. Therefore, to achieve trade diversification and structural transformation, countries like Liberia must transition from extractive FDI reliance to targeted investments in manufacturing, renewable energy, and digital services, supported by coherent policy frameworks, regional integration, and local capacity building.

Vietnam’s aquaculture exports play a pivotal role in the national economy, contributing significantly to GDP growth, rural employment, and global trade presence. Despite achieving impressive milestones—such as export revenues surpassing USD 11 billion in 2022—the sector continues to face challenges including rising input costs, stricter international standards, and fierce competition from other exporting countries.

This study investigates the current status of Vietnam’s aquaculture exports between 2022 and 2024, analyzes key influencing factors, and proposes solutions to enhance export performance. Secondary data were collected from official sources such as the General Statistics Office, Ministry of Industry and Trade, General Department of Fisheries, and the Vietnam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers, supplemented by academic articles and news reports. The research employs descriptive statistics and comparison of absolute and relative figures to identify export trends, assess competitiveness, and evaluate the impact of international market fluctuations.

The findings highlight that Vietnam’s seafood industry has achieved global reach, exporting to more than 170 countries and ranking third worldwide in export value. However, export turnover fluctuated sharply—from a record high of USD 11 billion in 2022 to a decline in 2023 due to inflation, high logistics costs, and weakened demand—before signs of recovery in 2024. To strengthen competitiveness, the study proposes measures such as optimizing Free Trade Agreement (FTA) opportunities, reducing domestic production costs, ensuring compliance with international standards, investing in deep-processing technologies, and enhancing trade promotion. These recommendations aim to support the sustainable growth of Vietnam’s aquaculture exports and reinforce its position in the global seafood market.

Today, artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly dominating the services delivered by telecommunication systems, and its importance cannot be understated. AI enables machines and systems to perform tasks that were once reserved for human experts, and it is growing to revolutionize the delivery of telecom services and is expected to create a business value of approximately $1.8 trillion by 2025. It has the potential to drive a 40% operating income in the telecom sector, a significant increase from previous decades. Over the years, we have seen that the development of AI has essentially driven a strategic competitive advantage in the telecom sector. AI includes a wide range of techniques that encapsulate both supervised and unsupervised learning, practical deep learning, reinforcement learning, natural language processing, and generation and reasoning skills, among others. Consequently, this technology allows telecom providers to fully automate tasks, such as testing, monitoring, and self-recovery to enhance operational efficiency and agility to offer better services. In this context, testing and monitoring in the telecom sector are two highly pertinent areas in which AI can maximize its impact by providing valuable insights and alerts to operational networks and critical national infrastructure-related incidents (

Negotiations between SACU and the US, to conclude a free trade agreement, have been stalled owing to substantive differences between the two sides on a broad range of issues. This report examines the goods market access dimension from the standpoint of additional market access that SACU could gain through locking in and extending AGOA preferences. It concludes that, whilst there are potential advantages to extending market access via the FTA, these are small in scope and that the main areas of benefit lie outside tariff negotiations, in rules of origin and US administration of trade remedies.

Negotiations between SACU and the US, to conclude a free trade agreement, have been stalled owing to substantive differences between the two sides on a broad range of issues. This report examines the goods market access dimension from the standpoint of additional market access that SACU could gain through locking in and extending AGOA preferences. It concludes that, whilst there are potential advantages to extending market access via the FTA, these are small in scope and that the main areas of benefit lie outside tariff negotiations, in rules of origin and US administration of trade remedies. Copyright © SAIIA, 2006

Negotiations between SACU and the US, to conclude a free trade agreement, have been stalled owing to substantive differences between the two sides on a broad range of issues. This report examines the goods market access dimension from the standpoint of additional market access that SACU could gain through locking in and extending AGOA preferences. It concludes that, whilst there are potential advantages to extending market access via the FTA, these are small in scope and that the main areas of benefit lie outside tariff negotiations, in rules of origin and US administration of trade remedies. Copyright © SAIIA, 2006

This thesis applies game theory to analyze the strategic dynamics of the US-China trade war, one of the most consequential economic confrontations of the 21st century. By utilizing models such as the Prisoner's Dilemma and its repeated form, the study explores why rational actors may escalate conflicts that result in mutual losses and under what conditions cooperation can emerge. A qualitative payoff structure demonstrates how trust, time horizons, and enforcement mechanisms influence strategic behavior. The research highlights the role of the discount factor in sustaining cooperative equilibria and examines real-world events-such as the Phase One deal-through the lens of game theory. While the models are simplifications, they provide critical insights into the incentives, dilemmas, and potential resolutions in trade conflicts. The findings have broader relevance for policymakers navigating international economic relations in an era marked by geopolitical tensions and economic nationalism.

This paper delves into India's competitive edge in the global coffee industry through an analysis of the Trade Dependence Index, Export Propensity Index and Revealed Comparative Advantage. By examining these indices, we highlight India's strategic positioning in coffee production and export. The analysis reveals that India has a significant export potential driven by favourable climatic conditions, diverse coffee varieties, and strong trade relationships. Additionally, the study underscores India's competitive strengths in quality production, cost efficiency, and value-added coffee products. These factors collectively contribute to India's growing influence and sustained competitiveness in the international coffee market.

The paper examined the effect of manufacturing sector output on economic growth in Nigeria for the period 1981-2020. Nigeria has enjoyed a long period of sustained economic growth since 1980 but the contribution of manufacturing sector output to the country's real gross domestic product (RGDP) is far from being realized when compared to other emerging economies of the world where structural changes have already occurred and where millions are lifted out of poverty. The study utilized secondary data and co-integration analysis to estimate data for its findings. The results of the major findings demonstrate a positive effect of the manufacturing sector output (MSO) on economic growth (GDP). The findings equally revealed that Productivity (PR) and Exports (EXP) demonstrate positive and strong effect on economic growth (GDP). More so, the indexes of manufacturing sector output, productivity and exports have enhanced economic growth over time except for manufacturing capacity utilization during the study period. The study therefore, recommends that the Nigerian government in collaboration with major stakeholders should improve the performance of the manufacturing sector through provision of adequate access to credits and other incentives so as to increase capacity utilization, employment opportunities, boost productivity, provide ready market, improve exports towards achieving sustainable economic development.

Over the past centuries, economic relations between United States of America and member countries of the EU have been one of the most influential relationships on the international stage. Nowadays the economy itself is a valuable part of both foreign and domestic policy of a particular country and , along with politics, is one of the main means of achieving the state's foreign policy goals.

Para analizar por qué se instalan los derechos de propiedad intelectual, en el ámbito de discusión del GATT y, posteriormente, en el ámbito de la OMC, debemos hacer una breve reseña de las normativas preexistentes. La protección de los derechos de propiedad intelectual a nivel internacional se ha logrado a través

Between 2019 and 2022, India's edible oil import value surged from USD 9.68 billion to USD 21.18 billion before declining to USD 16.41 billion in 2023. Rising domestic demand prompted the government to reduce import duties in 2021 to curb inflation caused by factors such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine conflict, labour shortages, and supply-chain disruptions. Although this policy primarily affected import value, it did not reduce import volumes, which rose from 156 lakh tonnes in 2019 to 162 lakh tonnes in 2023. This highlights India's dependence on major suppliers like Indonesia, Malaysia, Argentina, and Brazil, driven by growing domestic demand to meet the nutritional needs of its vast population. Despite initiatives such as the National Food Security Act, the Public Distribution System, and the Minimum Support Price (MSP) scheme, which aim to reduce import dependence, India's domestic production meets only 40% of its consumption needs. Rising population, urbanisation, income growth, and changing dietary habits have perpetuated the demand-supply imbalance. The reliance on imports exposes India to global price shocks and supply disruptions, disproportionately impacting low-income households and raising food security concerns. Additionally, the shift toward biofuel production in exporting nations diverts resources away from food markets, exacerbating supply constraints. Using a two-step analytical approach, this study examines India's edible oil market dynamics from 1981 to 2021. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) constructs demand and supply indices by capturing underlying dynamics and reducing dimensionality. A Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) further explores short-term interactions and long-term equilibrium among cointegrated variables. Results reveal that imports drive surplus ending stocks, suppressing local production incentives despite the availability of MSPs. Approximately 57% of demand disequilibrium and 68% of supply disequilibrium are corrected per period, stabilising the market within three to five years of a shock. Policy interventions are essential to reduce import dependency and address supply chain inefficiencies.

Given the obliterating impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the African economy, sustainable strategies for economic recovery are vital in the world's poor regions. This search for economic recovery strategies in Africa has culminated in the prescription of a litany of policy frameworks, including reliance on the African Continental Free Trade Area, a green recovery strategy that significantly gravitates toward investment and financing in intra-Africa trade. Considering this background, this study harnesses the wise words of Thandika Mkandawire (2011, p. 1), who questioned, “how can we make sure Africa keeps running while others walk”?, to challenge scholars to advance solutions aimed at enhancing
continuous development in Africa. In response to this challenge, this study unpacks the AfCFTA as a strategy adopted by the African continent to ensure a constant cyclical nature of sustainable development for future generations. Furthermore, this study argues that the alignment of the underpinnings of the AfCFTA as asustainable economic recovery plan gives the AfCFTA the potential to be Africa’s Marshall Plan and not just another grandiose razzmatazz. To understand this dynamic, this chapter employs a functionalist approach to examine how and the extent to which achieving this objective will culminate in peacebuilding and economic development in Africa. Consequently, the epistemological and ontological orientation of the research for this chapter warranted document-based
research hinged on the grounded theory approach, wherein theory is constructed from data. The main source of data was the Agreement establishing the AfCFTA. The provisions and content of the Agreement were thematically analysed to generate themes, concepts, and inferences on what the continental free trade area would contribute to intra-African trade. The study further recommended that the community of African scholars, African leaders, and African inhabitants must embrace mental growth while promoting transparency and commitment to ethical leadership to revamp African economies and harness their resources to the world for sustainable development.

This master's thesis for the American Grduate School in Paris is a quantitative comparative review of United States auto parts manufacturing jobs and trade to measure the covariance between a steep decline in auto parts manufacturing jobs in the US and an increase in the US manufacturing trade deficit with Mexico subsequent to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) taking effect in 1994. Scholarship has long been divided on the precise role that trade agreements play on unemployment between trade partners. While writers for Forbes, the Economist and analysts for the Cato Institute give an overall view of an increase in employment based on the Ricardian comparative advantage trade theory, encouraging specialization of trades between trade partners, others, such as contributors to the Economic Policy Institute’s studies, point to the effect of imports undermining domestic labor. Apart from scholarship, general public opinion is divided in the United States on the supposed benefits of free trade, particularly in relation to NAFTA and manufacturing work. The general sentiment is that a higher rate of imports implies less domestic manufacturing of imported products, leading to unemployment in the sector of the imported goods. Using the US auto parts manufacturing job sector for this study will help determine the extent to which trade deficits and employment are related.

Between 2019 and 2022, India's edible oil import value surged from USD 9.68 billion to USD 21.18 billion before declining to USD 16.41 billion in 2023. Rising domestic demand prompted the government to reduce import duties in 2021 to curb inflation caused by factors such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine conflict, labour shortages, and supply-chain disruptions. Although this policy primarily affected import value, it did not reduce import volumes, which rose from 156 lakh tonnes in 2019 to 162 lakh tonnes in 2023. This highlights India's dependence on major suppliers like Indonesia, Malaysia, Argentina, and Brazil, driven by growing domestic demand to meet the nutritional needs of its vast population. Despite initiatives such as the National Food Security Act, the Public Distribution System, and the Minimum Support Price (MSP) scheme, which aim to reduce import dependence, India's domestic production meets only 40% of its consumption needs. Rising population, urbanisation, income growth, and changing dietary habits have perpetuated the demand-supply imbalance. The reliance on imports exposes India to global price shocks and supply disruptions, disproportionately impacting low-income households and raising food security concerns. Additionally, the shift toward biofuel production in exporting nations diverts resources away from food markets, exacerbating supply constraints. Using a two-step analytical approach, this study examines India's edible oil market dynamics from 1981 to 2021. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) constructs demand and supply indices by capturing underlying dynamics and reducing dimensionality. A Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) further explores short-term interactions and long-term equilibrium among cointegrated variables. Results reveal that imports drive surplus ending stocks, suppressing local production incentives despite the availability of MSPs. Approximately 57% of demand disequilibrium and 68% of supply disequilibrium are corrected per period, stabilising the market within three to five years of a shock. Policy interventions are essential to reduce import dependency and address supply chain inefficiencies.

Currently Vietnam is a member of many international organizations. Participation in international economic integration helps businesses of Vietnam expand industries, export products, expand export markets, etc. but at the same time bring many challenges for Vietnamese businesses, such as quality of the product, products that meet the rules of origin of goods, etc. The Government is providing maximum support for businesses, but seizing the opportunity or not depends entirely on the enterprises themselves. Enterprises need to have specific development strategies, in which improving their competitiveness to adapt to the new business environment is the decisive factor for their “survival”. In the content of this article, the author focuses on analyzing the difficulties of Vietnamese enterprises in the process of competing with foreign enterprises, and proposing some solutions to improve the competitiveness of the Vietnamese businesses in the current period. Keywords: Competitiveness, Vietnamese enterprises, markets, import and export.

This article provides data-driven analyses of Lithuanian foreign trade activities. We combine Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) and Lauraéus-Kaivo-oja Index (LKI) measures to identify key changes and trends in export and import structures of the Lithuanian economy. The findings suggest that the export and import portfolios of the Lithuanian economy have been successfully diversified and the Lithuanian Smart Specialisation Strategy (S3) successful implemented in years 2015 through 2020. Presented in the form of HHI and LKI time series, our findings and the corresponding conclusions will be relevant to both the Lithuanian export and import industry and to industrial and economic policymakers in Lithuania and in international export and import agencies.

Farming innovations employed by sugarcane farmers is usually done by integrating the sugarcane production technologies. The main purpose is to increase productivity and sustainability of the sugarcane industry (Priyanka, et. Al. 2019) This descriptive method of research aid at determining the degree of farming innovations employed and the productivity of sugarcane farmers in the Visayas, Philippines. The 400 sugarcane farmers randomly identified at the 10 Mill Districts in the Visayas area of the Philippines. An instrument used was the agency Extension Program Guidelines that measures productivity of the farmers and degree of innovations employed by farmers, among others. The result shows that the level of productivity of sugarcane farms in the Visayas area was high and a significant difference indicates on the level of productivity of sugarcane farms when grouped as to location. The level of productivity of sugarcane farming in the Visayas in terms of indicators such as size of farm, type of soil, land topography, average rainfall received, distance of the farm to the sugar mill, farming innovations, workers' availability and expenses per hectare was at low productivity. Significant difference in the productivity of sugarcane farming in the different Mill Districts in the Visayas area in terms of size of farm, land topography, distance of the farm to the sugar mill, farming innovations, workers' availability, and expenses per hectare except for the type of soil and average rainfall. The degree of innovations employed by farmers does not significantly related to the productivity. Farmer's innovations does not influence the level of productivity.