Labour Allocation

This thesis studies entrepreneurship in the process of structural transformation. It builds on classical literature that understands the structural transformation process as the transition from a factor driven economy (dominated by the primary sector) to an efficiency driven economy (dominated by manufacturing activities), and thereafter an innovation-driven economy (led by an entrepreneurial tertiary sector). Within this framework, the entrepreneur is seen as a key figure, in fact, a driver of successful structural transformation. The thesis starts by re-evaluating this theoretical framework at the backdrop of the current context of urbanisation without industrialisation (Gollin et al, 2015) or premature deindustrialisation (Rodrik, 2015) and tries to find out whether it is at all useful in understanding the new realities. It asks the following questions. What is the place of the manufacturing sector in the process of the new type of structural transformation in sub-Saharan Africa ...

In this paper we show that investments to improve the supply and management of water reduce the time spent in fetching water by both men and women, which in turn will lead to a reallocation of the time saved to productive activities, and result in increased incomes. Using the national ARIS/REDS panel data of the NCAER we show that political reservations in the local government for vulnerable groups like scheduled castes and tribes, and women lead to greater local government investments in water supply and improved management. Political reservations are shown to increase the time spent by women in all productive activities, especially in self-employment in farm and non-farm activities. Increases in selfemployment are shown to have the greatest impact among the productive activities on household incomes.

Participatory rural appraisal draws on a suite of exercises including seasonal calendars that allows farmers to share knowledge of their life and conditions. Based on the specificity of the agricultural tasks for each crop, seasonal calendars allow men and women to share their detailed knowledge of cultivation practices and work entailed in farming. Both men and women participate in physical, hard manual labour such as land preparation, land clearing, digging holes and pruning branches. Men seem solely responsible for pesticide and fungicide application in coffee plantations. Likewise, there are other post-harvest activities that women are solely responsible for such as storage for maize and beans. These results which are specific to some villages in Uganda and Tanzania illustrate one type of data that calendar exercises generate. BANANA Preparing land 65 % 35 % Cultivation 76 % 24 % Procuring planting material 55 % 45 % Digging holes or trenches 54 % 46 % Planting 68 % 32 % Care for soil and plants 64 % 36 % Irrigation 35 % 65 % Pruning 65 % 35 % Harvesting 60 % 40 % Selling 50 % 50 % COFFEE Land preparation 83 % 17 % Ploughing/Cultivation 50 % 50 % Prepare seedling 100 % 0 % Digging holes 100 % 0 % Spacing 100 % 0 % Fertilizer/Manure application 66 % 34 % Plant seedling 100 % 0 % Weeding 70 % 30 % Pesticide application 100 % 0 % Fungicide application 100 % 0 % Pruning 85 % 15 % Desuckering and Pruning 50 % 50 % Harvesting 50 % 50 % Peeling 50 % 50 % Processing 50 % 50 % Drying 50 % 50 % Fermentation 50 % 50 % Washing 50 % 50 % Selling 60 % 40 % MAIZE Land preparation 50 % 50 % Harrowing 50 % 50 % Land clearing % 26 % Sourcing for inputs 50 % 50 % Seed preparation 50 % 50 % Digging holes 0 % 100 % Planting 18 % 82 % Weeding 45 % 55 % Earthing up 0 % 100 % Fertilizer application 45 % 55 % Spray herbicide and pestcide 50 % 50 % Add manure 50 % 50 % Cultivating 55 % 45 % Harvesting 25 % % Drying 25 % 75 % Selling 50 % 50 % Storage 0 % 100 % BEANS Primary cultivation 25 % 75 % Land clearing 50 % 50 % Digging holes 50 % 50 % Seeds selection 0 % 100 % Planting 0 % 100 % Weeding 10 % 90 % Spray herbicide and pestcide Storing 0 % 100 % in Uganda and Tanzania

In this paper we show that investments to improve the supply and management of water reduce the time spent in fetching water by both men and women, which in turn will lead to a reallocation of the time saved to productive activities, and result in increased incomes. Using the national ARIS/REDS panel data of the NCAER we show that political reservations in the local government for vulnerable groups like scheduled castes and tribes, and women lead to greater local government investments in water supply and improved management. Political reservations are shown to increase the time spent by women in all productive activities, especially in self-employment in farm and non-farm activities. Increases in selfemployment are shown to have the greatest impact among the productive activities on household incomes.

Participatory rural appraisal draws on a suite of exercises including seasonal calendars that allows farmers to share knowledge of their life and conditions. Based on the specificity of the agricultural tasks for each crop, seasonal calendars allow men and women to share their detailed knowledge of cultivation practices and work entailed in farming. Both men and women participate in physical, hard manual labour such as land preparation, land clearing, digging holes and pruning branches. Men seem solely responsible for pesticide and fungicide application in coffee plantations. Likewise, there are other post-harvest activities that women are solely responsible for such as storage for maize and beans. These results which are specific to some villages in Uganda and Tanzania illustrate one type of data that calendar exercises generate. BANANA Preparing land 65 % 35 % Cultivation 76 % 24 % Procuring planting material 55 % 45 % Digging holes or trenches 54 % 46 % Planting 68 % 32 % Care for soil and plants 64 % 36 % Irrigation 35 % 65 % Pruning 65 % 35 % Harvesting 60 % 40 % Selling 50 % 50 % COFFEE Land preparation 83 % 17 % Ploughing/Cultivation 50 % 50 % Prepare seedling 100 % 0 % Digging holes 100 % 0 % Spacing 100 % 0 % Fertilizer/Manure application 66 % 34 % Plant seedling 100 % 0 % Weeding 70 % 30 % Pesticide application 100 % 0 % Fungicide application 100 % 0 % Pruning 85 % 15 % Desuckering and Pruning 50 % 50 % Harvesting 50 % 50 % Peeling 50 % 50 % Processing 50 % 50 % Drying 50 % 50 % Fermentation 50 % 50 % Washing 50 % 50 % Selling 60 % 40 % MAIZE Land preparation 50 % 50 % Harrowing 50 % 50 % Land clearing % 26 % Sourcing for inputs 50 % 50 % Seed preparation 50 % 50 % Digging holes 0 % 100 % Planting 18 % 82 % Weeding 45 % 55 % Earthing up 0 % 100 % Fertilizer application 45 % 55 % Spray herbicide and pestcide 50 % 50 % Add manure 50 % 50 % Cultivating 55 % 45 % Harvesting 25 % % Drying 25 % 75 % Selling 50 % 50 % Storage 0 % 100 % BEANS Primary cultivation 25 % 75 % Land clearing 50 % 50 % Digging holes 50 % 50 % Seeds selection 0 % 100 % Planting 0 % 100 % Weeding 10 % 90 % Spray herbicide and pestcide Storing 0 % 100 % in Uganda and Tanzania

In this paper we show that investments to improve the supply and management of water reduce the time spent in fetching water by both men and women, which in turn will lead to a reallocation of the time saved to productive activities, and result in increased incomes. Using the national ARIS/REDS panel data of the NCAER we show that political reservations in the local government for vulnerable groups like scheduled castes and tribes, and women lead to greater local government investments in water supply and improved management. Political reservations are shown to increase the time spent by women in all productive activities, especially in self-employment in farm and non-farm activities. Increases in selfemployment are shown to have the greatest impact among the productive activities on household incomes.

Participatory rural appraisal draws on a suite of exercises including seasonal calendars that allows farmers to share knowledge of their life and conditions. Based on the specificity of the agricultural tasks for each crop, seasonal calendars allow men and women to share their detailed knowledge of cultivation practices and work entailed in farming. Both men and women participate in physical, hard manual labour such as land preparation, land clearing, digging holes and pruning branches. Men seem solely responsible for pesticide and fungicide application in coffee plantations. Likewise, there are other post-harvest activities that women are solely responsible for such as storage for maize and beans. These results which are specific to some villages in Uganda and Tanzania illustrate one type of data that calendar exercises generate. BANANA Preparing land 65 % 35 % Cultivation 76 % 24 % Procuring planting material 55 % 45 % Digging holes or trenches 54 % 46 % Planting 68 % 32 % Care for soil and plants 64 % 36 % Irrigation 35 % 65 % Pruning 65 % 35 % Harvesting 60 % 40 % Selling 50 % 50 % COFFEE Land preparation 83 % 17 % Ploughing/Cultivation 50 % 50 % Prepare seedling 100 % 0 % Digging holes 100 % 0 % Spacing 100 % 0 % Fertilizer/Manure application 66 % 34 % Plant seedling 100 % 0 % Weeding 70 % 30 % Pesticide application 100 % 0 % Fungicide application 100 % 0 % Pruning 85 % 15 % Desuckering and Pruning 50 % 50 % Harvesting 50 % 50 % Peeling 50 % 50 % Processing 50 % 50 % Drying 50 % 50 % Fermentation 50 % 50 % Washing 50 % 50 % Selling 60 % 40 % MAIZE Land preparation 50 % 50 % Harrowing 50 % 50 % Land clearing % 26 % Sourcing for inputs 50 % 50 % Seed preparation 50 % 50 % Digging holes 0 % 100 % Planting 18 % 82 % Weeding 45 % 55 % Earthing up 0 % 100 % Fertilizer application 45 % 55 % Spray herbicide and pestcide 50 % 50 % Add manure 50 % 50 % Cultivating 55 % 45 % Harvesting 25 % % Drying 25 % 75 % Selling 50 % 50 % Storage 0 % 100 % BEANS Primary cultivation 25 % 75 % Land clearing 50 % 50 % Digging holes 50 % 50 % Seeds selection 0 % 100 % Planting 0 % 100 % Weeding 10 % 90 % Spray herbicide and pestcide Storing 0 % 100 % in Uganda and Tanzania