Language Testing and Assessment

Maqolada korrupsiyaga qarshi kurashda Markaziy Osiyo davlatlari tajribasi, mavjud muammolar va ularni bartaraf etish bo‘yicha istiqboldagi hamkorlik masalalari ko‘rib chiqilgan. Shuningdek, mintaqalar va davlatlararo integrasiyalashuv jarayonлари jadallashib borayotgan murakkab davrda korrupsiyaga qarshi kurashda jamoatchilik nazoratini yanada kuchaytirish bo‘yicha fikrlar berilgan.

Maqolada korrupsiyaga global muammo sifatida qaralib, ushbu jarayon ko‘pgina davlatlarda eng asosiy muammo
sifatida baholanayotganligi, ayniqsa rivojlanayotgan davlatlarda turli ko‘rinishlarda namoyon bo‘lib, unga qarshi kurashdagi
yondashuvlar milliy qonunchilik hamda davlat tuzilmalarida jiddiy o‘zgartirishlarni amalga oshirilish zarurligini ko‘rsatayotganligi
to‘g‘risidagi fikrlar berilgan.

Hozirgi kunda korrupsiya global muammo
sifatida nafaqat ayrim davlatlar, balki jahon hamjamiyatining
barqaror rivojlanishiga tahdid solayotgan illatga aylanib
ulgurdi. Korrupsiya jamiyat taraqqiyotining har bir
bosqichida, turli ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy va siyosiy tuzumlarda
turlicha ko‘rinishlarda namoyon bo‘lib kelgan. Afsuski,
bu hodisa barcha davlatlarga xos bo‘lib, bugungi kunda
ham rivojlangan va rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlarda ham
uchramoqda.
Darhaqiqat, korrupsiya barcha davlatlar uchun jiddiy
muammo hisoblanadi, u iqtisodiy rivojlanishni susaytiradi,
bozor iqtisodiyoti mexanizmlarini ishdan chiqaradi, ijtimoiy
adolat tamoyillarini buzadi va demokratiya asoslarini
yemiradi. Hech bir davlat ushbu illatdan butunlay xalos
bo‘lmagan, biroq ba’zi davlatlar korrupsiya darajasini
sezilarli darajada pasaytirishga erishganlar. Bu jarayonda
albatta, jamiyat siyosiy madaniyati muhim ahamiyat kasb
etadi.
Jamiyat siyosiy madaniyati – bu jamiyatning siyosiy
tizimga bo‘lgan munosabati, uning me’yorlarini qabul qilishi,
siyosiy faollikning turli shakllari, siyosiy faoliyatning ijobiy
va salbiy ko‘rinishlariga munosabatini o‘z ichiga oladi. Shu
jihatdan, siyosiy madaniyatning yuksak darajasi jamiyatning
korrupsiyaga bo‘lgan salbiy munosabati, korrupsiyaga qarshi
kurashdagi faol ishtiroki, shaffoflik va ochiqlikka bo‘lgan
intilishini ta’minlaydi.
Bugungi kunda korrupsiyaga qarshi samarali kurashish
faqat huquqiy mexanizmlarni takomillashtirishnigina emas,
balki jamiyatning siyosiy ongi va madaniyatini yuksaltirishni
ham talab etadi. Chunki siyosiy ong va madaniyat yuksak
bo‘lgan jamiyatda har bir fuqaro o‘zini davlat va jamiyat
ishlarining faol ishtirokchisi deb his etadi, davlat organlari
faoliyatining shaffofligini talab qiladi va korrupsiyaga
mutlaqo yo‘l qo‘ymaydi.
Siyosiy madaniyat tushunchasining mazmun-mohiyatini,
uning jamiyat hayotidagi o‘rni va ayniqsa, korrupsiyaga
qarshi kurashishdagi ahamiyati tahlil qilinadi. Siyosiy
madaniyat – bu nafaqat siyosiy bilim va qarashlar yig‘indisi,
balki fuqaroning siyosiy faoliyatga, davlat boshqaruviga
bo‘lgan munosabati, unga nisbatan mas’uliyat hissi va
ishonch darajasini ifodalaydi. Bugungi globallashuv va tezkor
siyosiy jarayonlar sharoitida siyosiy madaniyat darajasining
yuksak bo‘lishi – davlat va jamiyat o‘rtasida barqaror,
sog‘lom aloqalarni ta’minlovchi muhim omillardan biridir.
Maqolada korrupsiyaning chuqur ildiz otgan
jamiyatlarda siyosiy befarqlik, fuqarolarning huquqiy va
siyosiy ongining pastligi ushbu illatning ildiz otishiga zamin
yaratishini ta’kidlayman. Shu bois, men siyosiy madaniyatni
oshirish – fuqarolarda korrupsiyaga nisbatan murosasiz
qarashni shakllantirish, adolatga intilish va davlat ishlarida
faol ishtirok etish madaniyatini rivojlantirish orqali bu illatga
qarshi kurashishda muhim ahamiyat kasb etishi asoslab
berilgan.
Maqolada O‘zbekiston tajribasi asosida olib
borilayotgan siyosiy va huquqiy islohotlarning fuqarolik
jamiyatini shakllantirishdagi, davlat organlari ochiqligi
va hisobdorligini ta’minlashdagi o‘rni tahlil qilingan.
Korrupsiyaga qarshi kurashda faqat jazoga asoslangan
yondashuv emas, balki ijtimoiy ongni, xususan, siyosiy
madaniyatni yuksaltirish orqali barqaror va samarali
natijalarga erishish mumkinligi ilgari surilgan.

Annotation. At present, corruption has become a global
problem that poses a threat not only to individual states but
also to the sustainable development of the international
community. Throughout every stage of social progress, under
various socio-economic and political systems, corruption
has manifested itself in different forms. Unfortunately, this
phenomenon is characteristic of all countries and continues to
be observed today both in developed and developing nations.
Indeed, corruption is a serious problem for all states, as it
slows down economic development, disrupts the mechanisms
of the market economy, undermines the principles of social
justice, and erodes the foundations of democracy. No country
has been entirely free from this scourge; however, some have
managed to significantly reduce the level of corruption. In this
process, the political culture of society plays a crucial role.
The political culture of a society encompasses its attitude
toward the political system, its acceptance of social and
political norms, the various forms of political participation,
and its response to both positive and negative manifestations
of political activity. In this regard, a high level of political
culture ensures a society’s negative stance toward corruption,
its active engagement in anti-corruption efforts, and its
commitment to transparency and openness.
In the modern era, effective anti-corruption efforts
require not only the improvement of legal mechanisms but also
the enhancement of the society’s political consciousness and
culture. This is because in a society with a high level of political
awareness and culture, every citizen perceives themselves as
an active participant in state and public affairs, demands
transparency in the functioning of government institutions,
and demonstrates zero tolerance toward corruption.
The concept of political culture, its essence, its role in
social life, and particularly its significance in combating
corruption are analyzed in this study. Political culture is
not merely a set of political knowledge and views; it also
reflects a citizen’s attitude toward political activity and state
governance, as well as their sense of responsibility and
level of trust in government institutions. In the context of
globalization and rapidly changing political processes, a
high level of political culture serves as one of the key factors
ensuring stable and constructive relations between the state
and society.
The article emphasizes that in societies where corruption
is deeply rooted, political apathy and the low level of citizens’
legal and political awareness create a fertile ground for this
phenomenon to persist. Therefore, I argue that enhancing
political culture plays a crucial role in combating corruption
by fostering an uncompromising attitude toward it among
citizens, promoting a sense of justice, and developing a culture
of active participation in public affairs.

This functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study investigated how facial cues influence second language (L2) shadowing among 42 Japanese learners of English. Participants completed four conditions that varied by task type (listening vs. shadowing) and visual input (face vs. mosaic). Behaviorally, shadowing reproduction accuracy was higher when the speaker's face was visible. Neuroimaging revealed greater activation in the left posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG), right ventral pallidum, and left hippocampus during shadowing in the Face condition, reflecting enhanced audiovisual integration, engagement, and memory-related processing. Learners with higher oral proficiency exhibited increased activation in speech-integration areas, such as the posterior superior temporal gyrus, and those with higher listening proficiency showed reduced cerebellar engagement, suggesting proficiency-dependent neural strategies for integrating facial cues during shadowing. These findings support embodied, multisensory, and socially grounded accounts of L2 learning, emphasizing the pedagogical importance of visible facial cues. Incorporating face-based shadowing into L2 learning may help bridge perception and production and prepare learners for interaction-oriented communication.

The internationalization of higher education has expanded educational opportunities across national borders. However, access to these opportunities remains unequal, particularly for students from low-income countries. Among the most significant barriers are standardized English language proficiency examinations such as IELTS, TOEFL, and PTE, which have become mandatory requirements for admission, scholarships, and immigration processes in many countries. This paper examines the extent to which English language testing functions as a structural barrier to higher education. It argues that the increasing cost of language examinations, the concentration of the languagetesting market among a limited number of providers, and the commercialization of language certification have created substantial obstacles for economically disadvantaged students. Drawing upon policy reports, higher education literature, and contemporary fee structures, the study explores the relationship between language testing and educational inequality. The paper concludes that although language assessment remains important for academic preparedness, current testing systems require significant reform to ensure equitable access to global higher education.

Insufficient student engagement in EFL classes is one of the serious and major challenges not only for novice teachers but also for experienced ones. It could cause disruptive behaviours and eventually decrease the learning opportunity on the part of students. This study attempts to discover the extent of the students' engagement dimensions and levels. Additionally, it seeks to discover the prevalent factors that cause the students' disengagement and those that promote and maintain the students' engagement level. The current study is restricted to 129 students of the English Department at College of Basic Education, Salahaddin University-Erbil in the academic year 2021-2022. A questionnaire and interview were employed to collect quantitative and qualitative data consecutively. The study results demonstrated that students practise engagement dimensions unevenly. In addition, the study showed that students practise engagement levels at different rates. Furthermore, it revealed the most common factors causing the students' disengagement and those promoting and maintaining their engagement. Finally, some recommendations are put forward.

Owing to vastly increasing practice of plagiarism at university level, it is vital that university teachers understand students' beliefs about plagiarism and the nature of plagiarism at their institutions. This article investigates senior EFL college students' perceptions of plagiarism seriousness and reasons for plagiarism via utilizing a questionnaire comprised of two sections. Furthermore, it focuses on assessing the students' practice of plagiarism in their undergraduate research projects through first using 'Turnitin' program to check similarity index percentage, and then manually checking plagiarism types. Face validity of the questionnaire and the inter-rater reliability for manual checking were estimated by SPSS. The current research is restricted to a sample of 53 college students at the English Department of College of Basic Education/ Salahaddin University-Erbil in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq for the academic year 2020-2021. Additionally, 29 of their undergraduate research projects were randomly selected for assessment. This study depends on a mixed method approach via adopting both qualitative and quantitative research designs. To achieve the aims of this research based on the collected and analyzed data, the researchers responded to five study questions. Results revealed that there is inconsistency in the similarity

Using Kane's interpretive argument model and Messick's validity argument approach, this study rigorously examined faculty and PhD candidate's perspectives on PhD admission interviews in Iranian universities. We interviewed 10 professors and PhD interviewees which provided comprehensive insight into nuanced perspectives. We conducted rigorous content analysis to identify prevalent themes, forming a strong foundation for our analysis. This study emphasizes the vital requirement for standardized evaluation criteria, robust support systems, and an enhanced interview process to ensure fair and inclusive admission systems. Additionally, our development of guidelines based on Toulmin's reasoning model underscores the originality of our contribution and its potential to benefit stakeholders and the Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology (MSRT) in Iran. The findings highlighted the importance of standardized criteria, support, and a stronger interview process for fairness and inclusivity in selecting PhD candidates. Faculty stressed clear guidelines to remove subjectivity, while candidates voiced concerns about unclear expectations and proposed added support like mentoring and preparation programs. Based on Toulmin's reasoning model, the study crafted validity argument guidelines for this context. As a result, these proposed changes will impact stakeholders and the MSRT by enhancing the PhD candidate evaluation process and ensuring a fairness and inclusivity. This study provides valuable insights to improve PhD admission procedures at Iranian universities by integrating standardized criteria, enhancing support mechanisms, and fostering fairness in decision-making.

These tactics are specifically designed for Ethiopian Health Informatics students preparing for the computer‑based exit examination. The strategies are based on the official B.Sc. curriculum and the national test blueprint (themes, cognitive levels, and question distribution).
Use these tactics to approach multiple‑choice questions (MCQs) systematically even when the content feels challenging.

We investigated whether use of an adaptive-responsive online homework system (OHS) that tailors homework to students' prior knowledge and periodically reassesses students to promote learning through practice retrieval has inherent advantages over traditional-responsive online homework. A quasi-experimental cohort control post-test-only design with nonequivalent groups and propensity scores with nearest neighbor matching (n = 6,114 pairs) was used. The adaptive system was found to increase the odds of a higher final letter grade for average, below average, and failing students. However, despite the learning advantages, students self-reported less favorable attitudes toward adaptive-responsive (3.15 of 5) relative to traditional-responsive OHS (3.31). Specific to the adaptive OHS, the following were found: (i) student attitudes were moderately and positively correlated (r = 0.36, p < 0.01) to final letter grade, (ii) most students (95%) reported engaging in remediation of incorrect responses, (iii) a majority of students (69%) reported changes in study habits, and (iv) students recognized the benefit of using adaptive OHS by ranking its assignments and explanations or review materials as two of the top three most useful course aspects contributing to perceived learning. Instructors can use our findings to inform their choice of online homework system for formative assessment of chemistry learning by weighing the benefits, disadvantages, and learning pedagogies of traditional-responsive versus adaptive-responsive systems.

This study examines the obstacles encountered by the secondary high school students in cultivating reading abilities essential for academic achievement and lifetime education. The research employs a mixed-methods approach to investigate factors influencing students' reading competency, such as socioeconomic status, linguistic obstacles, instructional methodologies, and resource availability. Data were gathered via surveys, interviews, and classroom observations across various educational environments. The results indicate that restricted vocabulary, insufficient access to reading resources, and a deficiency in motivation considerably impede pupils' reading skills. Moreover, pedagogical methods, like rote memorization and inadequate teacher training, exacerbate these challenges. The research highlights the necessity for focused interventions, such as enhanced reading environments, learner-centered pedagogies, and professional advancement for teachers. These strategies are suggested to tackle the issues and enhance reading proficiency among the secondary high school students. The study concludes with recommendations for policymakers and educators to improve reading skill during this crucial educational phase.

This study attempted to develop an English reading comprehension test for sixth graders and conduct a test quality examination. The sample group consisted of 30 sixth-grade students enrolled in the English for Communication Course during the first semester of the 2025 academic year at Wat Bang Kradee School, Bang Khun Thian District Office, Bangkok. The students were selected through cluster random sampling. In methodology, the researcher conducted data investigation, instrument creation, implementation, and evaluation. In statistical analysis, the values of IOC, difficulty index, discrimination power, and reliability were analyzed.
The results of the study portrayed that the test had a total of 40 items and was divided into three parts: 1) places and prepositions, 2) directions, and 3) asking for and giving directions. From the experts’ review, the IOC value was 0.91. In addition, the post-implementation analysis showed the difficulty index (𝑝) and the discrimination power (𝑟) values were 0.53 and
0.33, respectively. Therefore, the overall reliability value of the whole test set was 0.82. These results after implementation were considered for selecting only the usable 30 and reflected that the developed test specimen was statistically and practically suitable for assessing the reading skills of students at the upper primary level.

The objectives of this research were to develop and examine the quality of an English reading comprehension test for Grade 5 students. The research sample consisted of 40 students studying in Grade 5 at Saint Joseph Bangna School, selected by cluster random sampling. The research instrument was an English reading comprehension test, initially comprising 40 items, which was inspected by 3 experts for content validity using the Index of Item-Objective Congruence (IOC). The results showed an overall IOC value of 0.94. Following test improvement, 1 item was discarded due to low congruence, resulting in a 39-item version for quality analysis.
From the implementation, the statistical analysis demonstrated that 30 items met the required criteria. These items featured a difficulty index (p) ranging from 0.38 to 0.75 and a discrimination power (r) ranging from 0.32 to 0.48. Items that were found to be either too easy or possessed low discrimination were discarded to ensure the instrument's integrity. The overall reliability of the finalized 30-item test was confirmed with a Kuder-Richardson (K- R20) coefficient of 0.82. These results indicated that the test is a highly usable and valid instrument for assessing English reading comprehension at the primary level.

Gender differences in mathematics are sometimes discussed through achievement outcomes. However, international research and behaviour assessments consistently show persistent differences in attitudes including confidence, self-concept, and mathematics-related anxiety. Given the importance of early school years for the development of beliefs, the learning materials used in the first years of primary education are relevant to how mathematics is socially framed for children. Following representation theory, this thesis examines how gender is represented in selected Grade 1 mathematics learning materials used in Finland and questions how these representations may relate to broader research results on gendered mathematics attitudes, for examples ones from PISA.

This study uses a qualitative approach utilising content analysis and critical discourse analysis. The dataset consists of 6 books of teacher guides. The findings show that, within Finnish context, girls are not typically excluded from being depicted in mathematical problems. However, notable differences emerge when examining representation through role allocation and context. Girls were found more often depicted as active participants in domestic or social everyday mathematical settings, while boys appeared in more technical or scientific examples of mathematical activity. Because many of these examples are embedded in teacher guides, they may be especially influential in how tasks are performed in classrooms.

The findings showed that evaluating equality in early mathematics materials cannot rely only on frequency of appearance but should also consider how competence and agency are repeatedly framed in different types of mathematical examples. The results suggest both progress compared with common international textbook patterns, and a clear area for improvement. Strengthening counter-stereotypical opportunities in technical and scientific framings, can help present early mathematics as more equity-aspiring for all learners.

LEONTARIDI, E. (2026), “Sobre un paralelismo solo aparente. El perfecto español frente al parakeimenos griego”. J. Fernández González & E. Bajo Pérez (eds.), Puntos clave en la enseñanza de ELE. Estudios en Homenaje al profesor Juan Felipe García Santos, (ISBN: 978-84-1091-232-8), Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 341-355. https://doi.org/10.14201/0AQ0397341355

Ushbu maqolada korrupsiya illati haqida qisqacha ma'lumot keltirilgan. Korrupsiyaning insonlar uchun keltiradigan zarari uning ayanchli oqibatlari haqida qisqacha yoritib berilgan. Korrupsiyaning paydo bo'lishi. Uning jamiyatimizga ta'siri haqida ham ma'lumotlar bor. Korrupsiyaga qarshi yurtimizda olib borilayotgan ishlar, qonunlar tog'risida ma'lumot keltirilgan. Kalit so'zlar: Korrupsiya. Konstitutsiya. Qonunlar,chora-tadbirlar. Poraxo'rlik, ta'magirlik, illat. Islohot. O'zbekiston Respublikasi. Huquqiy savodhonlik, ijtimoiy soha. Davlat, jamiyat, kelajak avlod. Taraqqiyot. Аннотация В данной статье представлен краткий обзор злаб которым является коррупция. В статье кратко описывается вред, который коррупция причиняет людям, а также ее трагические последствия. Возникновение коррупция. Имеется информфция о его влиянии на наше общество. Предоставляется информфция о проводимой в нашей стране антикоррупционной работе и действующем законодательстве. Ключевые слова: Коррупция. Конститутция. Законы, меры. Взятка, жадность, дефект. Реформа. Республика Узбекистан. Правовая грамотность, социальная сфера. Государства, общества, будущее поколение. Прогресс.

This article examines the history, factors of formation, features, rules, and purposes of the equestrian game, which is an integral part of the Turanian culture. The evidence base of the article is historical sources, archaeological finds, wall and monumental paintings, and literary works. The significance of the equestrian game in Uzbek culture, its role in society, and features of the rules of the game are analyzed. In addition, it is revealed that among equestrian games, the equestrian game is an art that contributes to the spread of Turanian culture throughout the world.

This thesis investigates the critical relationship between architectural design and the holistic
well-being of oncology patients at Tikur Anbessa Specialized Hospital (TASH) in Addis Ababa.
Confronted with facilities that are largely repurposed and severely overcrowded, the research
posits that the current spatial setting actively undermines patient-centered care. Employing a
mixed-methods, case study approach integrating patient surveys, staff interviews, and
systematic spatial analysis the study identifies systemic failures rooted in architectural
dysfunction. Key findings reveal a profound absence of visual and acoustic privacy, a
wayfinding system that disorients 80% of patients, and waiting and treatment environments
devoid of restorative qualities or connections to nature, thereby exacerbating the psychological
distress inherent to cancer treatment.
The evidence conclusively demonstrates that the physical environment acts as a barrier to safety,
dignity, and emotional resilience. In response, the thesis proposes an evidence-based
architectural intervention framework centered on the principle of "Positive Distraction." The
recommendations outline a dual strategy: immediate, low-cost adaptations to mitigate acute
issues like overcrowding and sensory assault, and a long-term biophilic masterplan for
horizontal expansion. This visionary design advocates for segregated circulation, integrated
healing gardens, strategic daylighting, and sensory modulation to transform the oncology unit
into a therapeutic sanctuary. Ultimately, this research provides a transferable model for
reimagining cancer care infrastructure in resource-constrained settings, arguing that empathetic,
evidence-based architecture is not a luxury but an essential component of comprehensive
healing.

The article deals with the description of an experiment, a kind of empirical study, which was carried out in one of the Polytechnic Universities of Ukraine. It (the experiment) involved ChatGPT's participation in the process along with the teachers and students. The group included both humanitarian and engineering students. The goal of the article was as follows: to identify whether the ChatGPT system alone, without a teacher's participation, is capable of freely communicating with students, answering their possible questions, and satisfactorily explaining any grammatical material. The results demonstrated that in spite of some shortcomings that were evident in presenting outdated data and a lack of necessary details, ChatGPT's importance as an unlimited informational resource can hardly be overestimated. However, the experiment has proven another fact as well-it is the teacher who was a real promoter of the explanation strategy in the educational process, which manifested in close communication both with the students and ChatGPT, making him a real intermediate link between them.

In this era, language teaching and assessment practices have been rapidly integrated with the use of artificial intelligence (AI). ChatGPT, an AI tool, has gained significant attention for its ability to help teachers design instructional materials, generate assessments, and provide feedback. In the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context, ChatGPT supports teachers in creating language assessment tasks, for example, composing grammar exercises in multiple-choice items or writing test prompts. Recent research findings show that ChatGPT increases efficiency in the language assessment design process and provides immediate feedback, thereby supporting the EFL teaching and learning process (Li et al., 2024; Wangdi et al., 2025).

Before the advent of educational standards, the rights and responsibilities of test takers were somehow oblique. This has led to a lot of arguments among educators, test administrators, academics, and others on how test takers should comport themselves and what they are expected to know before, during, and after taking any test and/or examination. It is against this background that this paper examined the rights and responsibilities of test takers and the introspection of Messick and Kane's approaches to validity: the untold stories. The crux of this paper is that test takers are expected to know and identify their rights and responsibilities in any test they take in order to forestall any misconceptions about the misuse of their test scores. The 1999 and 2014 standards shed more light on the rights and responsibilities of test takers, which stood as a premise upon which many test takers, test administrators, and educators lay their claims on the use and interpretation of test scores. The paper also examined the intersection between test validity theories and the ethical imperatives that govern test use. Drawing upon Messick's unified theory of validity which situates construct validity as encompassing consequential and value implications, and Kane's argument-based approach to validation. The paper also explores how these frameworks articulate and support the rights and responsibilities of test takers. The study expatiates how fairness, access, transparency, and accountability are embedded within or marginalized by dominant validity frameworks using the conceptual-analytical method. It also examines the "untold stories" of test takers, most especially those from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds whose experiences reveal the practical challenges of operationalizing fairness in high-stakes testing. This paper contributes immensely to the ongoing conversation on shared vision for equitable and valid educational assessment practices. The paper recommended that the rights of test takers must be recognized, and they must be treated with courtesy and respect, regardless of age, disability, ethnicity, gender, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, or other personal characteristics, as this would give room for fairness and inclusiveness in the use and interpretation of test scores.

This study attempts to explore the perceptions of Pakistani pre-university EFL learners about the intensive reading (IR) and extensive reading (ER) approaches and the use of technology in these two approaches. This is a qualitative study using a purposive sampling technique. The participants were 10 pre-university undergraduate students enrolled in the foundation program of a public sector university in Pakistan. Researchers used semi-structured interviews and reflective diaries as data collection tools. Thematic analysis and personal interpretation techniques were used to analyze the results. The results showed that after participating in the reading classes, the students had positive perceptions of the IR and ER approaches and found them useful and interesting. The results also showed that the learners felt that their language skills improved significantly after participating in the IR and ER-related activities. Students also found these reading approaches to be complementary to each other. The results also indicated that teachers' use of intensive reading and extensive reading approaches could make learners skilled and autonomous readers. Ultimately, their reading problems could be solved with these approaches. Moreover, the learners also perceived the use of technology in these two reading approaches as of great benefit to them. The researchers recommend incorporating IR and ER activities into the EFL classroom using digital resources to maximize EFL learners' reading abilities and other language skills.

This study investigates the relationship between the Event Structure Metaphor and alternate construal in Chinese by examining the distribution of location-based and objectbased realizations across abstract concepts. Within the Event Structure Metaphor framework, abstract concepts may be structured through either the Location Event Structure Metaphor or the Object Event Structure Metaphor. A central theoretical question is to what extent these two construal types are available for understanding and expressing abstract concepts. Using a controlled corpus design, the study combined 40 source verbs with 14 abstract target concepts in motion-location and manipulation-object constructions, subsequently generating a dataset of both attested and unattested combinations. Quantitative analysis reveals that the alternation between the two construal types is a widespread phenomenon, but most concepts favor one type over the other. The findings demonstrate that alternate construal within the Event Structure Metaphor system is selectively licensed by the semantic properties of individual concepts and conceptually constrained. The study highlights the value of combining corpusbased quantification with theoretically informed construal analysis.

Aiming to emphasize formative assessment, student-centered pedagogies, and active student involvement, this study addresses a significant gap in the literature concerning feedback practices in the Moroccan EFL context. Specifically, it investigates the frequent feedback forms used in EFL classrooms and examines their role in enhancing teaching and learning. Using a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, the study first collected quantitative data from 260 EFL teachers using an online self-report questionnaire. Checklistbased classroom observations followed this in two Moroccan high school EFL classrooms in the Sale directorate, Morocco. Additionally, semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven EFL teachers to cross-check the predominant feedback forms and gather further insights into how feedback supports teaching and learning. Findings indicate that teacher participants predominantly utilize immediate verbal feedback, followed by test scores, whole-class exam corrections, judgmental feedback and teacher-student conferencing for scaffolding during informal CBA activities (e.g., role play). While these practices support teaching to some degree, their influence on the learning process remains limited. Furthermore, teacher participants consider numerous factors to grade students, including class participation, homework, discipline, copybook organization, attendance, and projects. This study highlights important implications, notably the need to strengthen CBA's formative role and improve feedback practices to support student learning.

This article provides a scientific examination of the formation, hierarchy, types of taxes, main features, and historical significance of the legal and administrative system of the Timurid state (1370-1507). The article aims to analyse the legal sources of the Timurid state, examining their interrelationships and practical applications. The article presents evidence proving that Amir Timur created a multi-layered legal system through the combined application of Sharia decrees, the Timur Regulations (Tuzukat), the Mongol Yasa, and customary law.

This paper examines the gaps between the objectives of the curriculum and actual practice in the English Language Teaching (ELT) in Bangladesh. The English curriculum used in the country is based on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), but in most cases, the lessons are conventional and test-oriented. This restricts learners’ ability to achieve communicative competence. Surveying 40 secondary and higher secondary English teachers and 107 pupils through structured questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews with 10 teachers, constituted a mixed-methods approach to the survey.

The quantitative data reveal that very often communicative activities are not used at the classroom. The qualitative data, on the other hand, reveal numerous interconnected problems, including pressure to perform well on tests, a high number of classes, teacher training, and low student competency. These variables make it harder to put CLT into practice and keep the gap between the planned curriculum and what really happens in the classroom.

The research shows that the relationship between the intended curriculum and students’ classroom activities remains tenuous and systemic. According to it, the only solution to this issue is significant and includes incorporating communicative skills into the assessment system, providing intensive, practical teacher training, and aligning Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) with current school practices in the region.

 

Keywords: Bangladesh, classroom practices, Communicative Language Teaching, English Language Teaching, and implementing curriculum into practice.

Ushbu ishda quvlovchi boshqaruviga chiziqli bo‘lmagan integral  -chegaralanish  qochuvchi boshqaruviga esa chiziqli integral chegaralanish  qo‘yilgan ikkinchi tartibli differensial o‘yin o‘rganiladi. Asosiy natija sifatida ushlash uchun yetarli shart topiladi: agar    bo‘lsa, quvlovchi T vaqt ichida qochuvchini ushlay oladi.  holati uchun bu shart  ko‘rinishni oladi. Olingan natijalar klassik differensial o‘yinlar nazariyasini integral chegaralanishlar holatiga umumlashtiradi va energiya resurslari cheklangan tizimlar uchun amaliy ahamiyatga ega.

Measuring students’ conceptual understanding is a challenge for teachers. Teachers usually use open-ended instruments to measure students’ conceptual understanding in depth. However, this instrument is considered highly subjective in the assessment and requires a relatively long time to check the answers. Computerised Testlet instruments developed by combining the advantages of open-ended and closed-ended instruments are deemed the solution to these problems. This study, therefore, aims to analyse the quality of the Computerised Testlet instrument psychometrically. The Rasch analysis model with Winsteps software was used in this study. A total of 10 Testlet items with three supporting questions were developed on the topic of stoichiometry. A total of 413 students (N = 413: 236 female, 177 male) from three different schools took tests on stoichiometry using the Testlet instrument, which was provided through a web developed previously (computerised). Rasch analysis model helped psycho...