Old Kingdom

In 1937 British explorer Howard Vyse opened the 3 rd pyramid at Giza and recovered some bones and part of a wooden mummy-case. These items were initially exhibited as genuine relics of King Menkaure from ca 2500 BCE until later C-14 analysis showed them to be 2-3000 years younger-after which the coffin was reclassified as a substitute 'reburial'. Here, reexamination of Vyse's journal presents a string of anomalies that strongly suggest the coffin and bones, found together, were deliberately planted. It was a hoax.

In the context of the Old Kingdom, beer jars have historically been viewed as little more than containers for everyday goods. The findings of this research, which were obtained from excavations conducted at the Thary Cemetery between the years 2018 and 2021, challenge that concept by demonstrating the variety of ways in which they are utilised throughout their lifecycle. First, they are used to store water, grain, and plaster. Then, they are used for ritualistic purposes, as indicated by the perforations that were made in the tombs after they were fired. Finally, they are repurposed for architectural purposes, being integrated horizontally into mudbrick walls in a distinctive honeycomb arrangement. This change, which has been methodically planned and whose clarity is unrivalled on the Giza Plateau, demonstrates that the design of the vessel was purposely and purposefully incorporated into both symbolic and architectural settings. Thary gives the first piece of clear evidence of an early circular economy in material activities, which requires a reevaluation of the role that utilitarian objects performed within the Old Kingdom's socio-ritual and architectural frameworks.

This paper introduces Granite Manipulation Through Structural Leverage, a mechanical model derived from the Sand Crane Theory, proposing that the pyramid’s own limestone courses functioned as integral tools in the placement of heavy granite blocks. Rather than relying on external cranes or massive ramps, the partially built pyramid acted as a self‑reinforcing scaffold: its limestone blocks replaced the crane’s A‑frame, serving as anchor points and friction surfaces for rope systems. High‑strength ropes passed over the pyramid’s apex, lubricated by wooden logs continuously fed beneath them, and connected to sand‑and‑water counterweights descending controlled wooden slopes. This configuration enabled workers to lift, tilt, and position one end of a granite block while the opposite end remained anchored, allowing precise placement through incremental leverage rather than vertical lifting. The model demonstrates that Old Kingdom engineers could exploit the geometry and mass of the pyramid itself as a dynamic machine, transforming the structure from passive masonry into an active mechanical system for large‑scale stone manipulation.

Abstract

This paper proposes a mechanically plausible lifting system—here termed the Sand Crane—that integrates counterweight‑based cranes, wooden scaffolding, and a three‑dimensional corner‑seeded construction pattern to explain how Old Kingdom Egyptians could have efficiently raised and placed limestone blocks during pyramid construction. Using lever mechanics, torque calculations, and material constraints known from the period, the study demonstrates that a 6–10 m tall counterweighted crane could lift 2–3 ton limestone blocks using only Old Kingdom materials: composite wooden beams, plant‑fiber ropes, copper fittings, and sand‑water counterweights. The system is shown to be scalable, repeatable, and compatible with archaeological evidence of multi‑team labor organization.

This study proposes a hybrid construction model for the Egyptian pyramids that integrates traditional ramp systems with a counterweight‑driven crane mechanism, termed the Sand Crane Hypothesis. The model addresses the limitations of large‑scale ramps by introducing rotational wooden cranes equipped with sand‑filled counterweight buckets and a 1:4 lever beam ratio. Using materials available in the Old Kingdom—cedar beams, copper fittings, and high‑tensile linen ropes—the cranes could lift multi‑ton limestone blocks vertically while rotating for precise placement. Ramps are theorized to have served the lower construction stages, facilitating horizontal transport, while sand cranes operated at higher tiers for vertical lifting and chamber formation. Mechanical analysis demonstrates that wet sand, with a density of approximately 2.0 t/m³, could generate sufficient counterweight force to raise heavy blocks several meters. This hybrid approach reconciles the efficiency of ramp transport with the precision of crane placement, offering a cohesive explanation for both the scale and architectural accuracy of pyramid construction. The model invites further experimental archaeology to validate its mechanical feasibility and explore its implications for ancient Egyptian engineering.

This hypothesis proposes that the Great Pyramid and its sister monuments could have been constructed using modular A‑frame cranes powered by sand‑bucket counterweights. The system leverages simple materials, stable geometry, and granular mass flow to lift multi‑ton limestone blocks with precision and minimal manpower.

The discovery of red-painted cartouches bearing the name of Khufu within the so-called relieving chambers of the Great Pyramid remains one of the most cited pieces of evidence attributing the monument to the Fourth Dynasty. These markings, documented in 1837 by Richard William Howard Vyse, have long been considered decisive. However, the epistemological foundation of this claim rests on evidence obtained under conditions that would not meet modern archaeological standards. This article revisits the historical, methodological, and material aspects of the discovery, questioning whether the cartouches can be accepted uncritically as primary evidence. Without asserting fraud as fact, it argues that the current scholarly consensus relies on assumptions that merit renewed scientific scrutiny.

The Great Pyramid of Giza, traditionally attributed to Pharaoh Khufu, remains one of the most enigmatic monuments in human history. While mainstream Egyptology posits that thousands of workers organized in teams constructed it over decades using ramps and other logistical strategies, several discrepancies challenge this narrative. This paper critically examines evidence from inscriptions, archaeological remains, and logistical considerations. It questions whether the carbon-14 data, settlement remains, and supposed worker artifacts conclusively support the traditional construction model, and explores alternative interpretations. Emphasis is placed on methodological caution, evidentiary limits, and the epistemological implications of reconstructing ancient technological systems from incomplete data.

This article presents some preliminary results of the excavation in the sacred animal necropolis at the Bubasteion in Saqqara. This work examined the rock façade further west of the New Kingdom cemetery that was uncovered previously by the French mission in the eastern part of the site. Several tombs were discovered during this excavation, four of which date to the Old Kingdom. One of these tombs, which belongs to a lector priest, wahty, is beautifully decorated with reliefs and statues. Another of these tombs was built by the overseer of the builders of the Great House, Khufuemhat. In addition, three New Kingdom tomb-chapels were uncovered, all of which were largely unfinished. In the debris that covered the site, much archaeological data was obtained and many objects were discovered, dating to the period between the Old Kingdom and New Kingdom. These included canopic jars, scribal palettes, pottery jars, headrests, etc. During the Late Period, the site was used as part of the sacr...

Dedicated to all those who, at some point while I was writing it, listened to me even if they weren't very interested, especially Maria.
This essay aims both to present Mastaba 17 of Meidum (M17), and to find out if it belonged to a pharaoh or a subject.

The article presents a Ukrainian translation of one of the most outstanding works of ancient Near Eastern literature – the Teachings of Aḥiqar. The translation is made from the oldest currently known Aramaic version of the work, dated to the 6th century BC and represented by a manuscript of the 5th century BC (TAD C1.1) from the archive of the Jewish community on the island of Elephantine (Egypt). According to recent research, the Aramaic text of the Teachings is the earliest example of this work and, possibly, the original. The introduction to the translation presents an overview of the primary studies of the Teachings of Aḥiqar, particularly the issues of the literary forms of the prose and poetic parts of the work, as well as discussions regarding the language of the original and its religious evaluation. The latter issue is considered in detail in the article and includes the following aspects: the connection of wisdom with the Divine Principle in ancient wisdom literature; the transcendental nature of wisdom and monotheism as a worldview basis; mythopoetics and wisdom; and comparison with biblical wisdom literature.

Given the damage and incompleteness of the ancient Aramaic text, the content analysis was also compared with the later Syriac version, which is considered the closest to the source (after the Aramaic text). Translation of the Teachings of Aḥiqar into the Ukrainian language is made for the first time.

The Department of Egyptian and Near Eastern Archaeology was founded in 1998. Its main fields
of research include Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt, the Early Bronze Age in the southern Levant,
Egyptian architecture of the Middle Kingdom, and Egyptian art and architecture. Scientific expeditions organised
by the department have worked in Egypt (Tell el-Farkha, Kafr Hassan Dawood and Tell el-Murra),
Israel (Tel Erani), southern Jordan (the Heritage-Landscape-Community Project) and Sudan (the Akasha-
Ambigol region). Excavated since 1998, Tell el-Farkha is one of the most important sites in the Nile Delta,
dating back to the beginnings of the Egyptian state. The findings of the research conducted in the settlement
and at the cemetery have completely changed the previous hypothesis about the prehistory of this region and
have presented newer and more convincing theories. Tell el-Murra has been studied since 2008. The site was
inhabited since ca. 3500 BC (the Lower Egyptian culture) until ca. 2200 BC (the end of the Old Kingdom),
with a short period of abandonment just after the Lower Egyptian culture. Both the cemetery and the settlement
were explored there. Tel Erani is located in the northern Negev. The main outcome of the department’s
investigations here was confirmation of the existence of the defensive wall, which may date to around the
middle part of the Early Bronze 1b phase. Identification of the scale and nature of the relationship between
Egypt and the southern Levant at the end of 4th millennium BC was also one of our main achievements. The
Heritage-Landscape-Community Project completed in the southern part of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
is the first complex attempt to establish the functional stages and significance of the region of southern
Jordan in the late prehistory, especially during the Early Bronze Age. The research objective here was to
determine the stages and specifics of human activity within this period in this area. The main aim of research
between Akasha and Ambigol was to survey the area as well as create a digital archaeological map of the
area and evaluate the contemporary potential of this area for long-term excavations.

During the last decades, scholars have pointed some structural and methodological problems in Egyptology. They lie not only in the tendency to evolutionary approaches but also in the biased and limited sources used, mainly of funerary and administrative character. The Third Millennium is probably the period when it can be detected more clearly. Scholars have written rivers of ink about how monarchy and administration emerged. It seemed as if in the face of state construction, any other aspects of Egyptian society were invisible or totally passive. Fortunately, this biased institutional approach has been certainly overcome and, nowadays, the study of the Old Kingdom and its surrounding periods involves a much more global vision. A vision where local authorities have become increasingly prominent. That being so, the goal of the present paper is analysing the role of ancestral leadership as a source of legitimation for provincial elites during dynastic times, specifically during the Old Kingdom. It will be done by way of HoAw, a kind of provincial authorities well-known for their links to Hwwt, estates under the control of the Crown during the Old Kingdom. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to show that their authority lied in the Crown support, but also in ancestral tradition.