Online victimization

The overall aim of this paper is to offer a greater understanding of the context of children's online sexual behaviour through exploring what are some of the main challenges the police encounter when investigating digital content of a sexual nature produced by young people, such as photographs, videos and chat messages. Methodology: The research is primarily reviewing and analysing academic literature, policy papers, legal sources and statistical data. The main areas examined include the increasing prevalence of self-generated child sexual abuse material (CSAM), how contemporary peer-to-peer relations amongst children impact the self-production of sexual material, and how creating sexual content online for commercial reasons and the development of digital technologies add to the complexity and ambiguities of investigations. Findings: Findings in this paper highlight that law enforcement alone will not be able to manage all the challenges that online child sexual abuse crimes imply on society and children in particular. They will need clear guidelines to differentiate between children's harmful and healthy online sexual behaviour and upto-date knowledge on how to avoid the unnecessary victimisation of children. Value: This paper promotes a more nuanced understanding of the complex phenomenon of children self-generating explicit content, which is often embedded within wider societal issues of peer-to-peer relations, financial deprivation and technological advancement. As a result, we will be able to better protect young people, distinguishing between adolescents' healthy and harmful online sexual behaviours, so resources can be prioritised and interventions carried out when authority is needed, avoiding the unnecessary criminalisation of children.

This study investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic school closures on peer victimization in Mexico and Russia. In addition to effects on academic performance and attendance, the lockdowns interfered with usual peer socialization experiences and interactions. We examined the effects on the problem of bullying victimization. Since all measures were originally in English, factorial invariance was established at the outset. Comparisons by country for frequency of victimization, type of victimization, harmfulness of the victimization experiences, location of the victimization, and relationships to the perpetrator, were calculated. Although the countries were similar in many ways, significant differences were detected on several items; one notable difference was the relationship to the perpetrator. In Mexico, the most common bully was siblings, while in Russia, the highest rank was for parents. Significant differences reflected the cultural contexts of each country; these cultura...

Studies on the pandemic suggest that COVID is related to many facets of adolescent development (i.e., Golberstein et al., JAMA Pediatrics, 174(9), 819-820, 2020). Although the full consequences of COVID on social, economic, and health outcomes are not yet fully known, the impact is predicted to be long-lasting (Prime et al., American Psychologist, 75(5), 631-643, 2020). This paper is a systematic review that focuses on the COVID pandemic's change in adolescents' relationships with their siblings, peers, and romantic partners, as well as the role of these relationships in helping adolescents navigate through the uncertainties of this period. Studies from several different countries were selected using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklist (Page et al., International Journal of Surgery, 88, 105906, 2021). Overall, the findings are mixed, with some results showing no change or relationship between COVID and each of the adolescent relationships examined, while other results indicated significant positive and/or negative changes or relationships. We hope our review of this growing body of literature will provide guidance and recommendations for researchers moving forward with specific studies examining the change in adolescents' relationships with siblings, peers, and romantic partners-and the roles of these relationships during the COVID pandemic.

Aim: The aim of the study is to provide a comprehensive analysis of children’s Internet usage and their activities in relation to the risk factors and some of the effects of victimisation in the digital world, besides looking at a few of the relevant functional characteristics of social media. By identifying pertinent criminological factors that contribute to harmful behaviours targeting children in the cyber domain, this research contributes understanding of the preventive measures or potential risks associated with online victimisation and the development of digital technologies in safeguarding children online.Methodology: The research mainly reviews and analyses relevant data from academic literature, policy documents, legal sources and statistics in a criminological theoretical context.Findings: The study highlights that children dedicate a substantial amount of time to the digital space, and alongside its advantages, the risk of becoming victims also escalates. Drawing attention to children’s emotional vulnerability and the effects of online abuse is particularly crucial in terms of prevention and intervention. Constant enhancement of regulations and measures, diligent monitoring of international best practices, comprehending and effectively ad-dressing emerging technologies and trends, as well as promoting collaboration among stakeholders, can facilitate a more effective safeguarding of children in cyberspace.Value: The study facilitates a better comprehension of children’s internet usage habits and the risks inherent in them, as well as the processes and circumstances leading to online victimisation, thereby promoting the development of law enforcement and regulatory practices that prioritise effective victim protection and the consideration of children’s rights. Additionally, it aids in the establishment of child protection protocols and collaborations that take into account the aforementioned aspects.

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A tanulmány célja, hogy átfogóan vizsgálja a gyermekek tevékenységeit, az áldozattá válás kockázati tényezőit és egyes hatásait a digitális világban, az internethasználati szokásaikat és a közösségi média releváns működési sajátosságait. Kriminológiai szempontból releváns befolyásoló tényezőket azonosít, amelyek megkönnyítik a gyermekek elleni bűnelkövetést a digitális térben, és segíti megérteni, hogy milyen megelőző vagy kockázatnövelő szerepe lehet a fejlődő digitális technológiáknak a gyermekek online térben való védelmében. Módszertan: A kutatás-kriminológiai elméleti keretekben-főként áttekinti és elemzi a releváns tudományos szakirodalom, szakpolitikai dokumentumok, jogi források és statisztikai adatok részleteit. Megállapítások: A tanulmány rámutat, hogy a gyermekek jelentős mennyiségű időt töltenek a digitális térben, és ennek előnyei mellett növekszik az áldozattá válás kockázata is. A gyermekek érzelmi sebezhetőségére és az online bántalmazás hatásaira való figyelemfelhívás kiemelten fontos a megelőzés és kezelés során. A szabályozás és az intézkedések folyamatos javítása, a nemzetközi jó gyakorlatok figyelemmel kísérése, a fejlődő technológiák és trendek megismerése és megfelelő kezelése, illetve a szereplők közötti együttműködés elősegíthetik a gyermekek hatékonyabb védelmét az online világban. Érték: A tanulmány hozzájárul a gyermekek internethasználati szokásai és a velük járó kockázatok jobb megértéséhez, valamint az online áldozattá válásuk

Aim: The overall aim of this paper is to offer a greater understanding of the context of children's online sexual behaviour through exploring what are some of the main challenges the police encounter when investigating digital content of a sexual nature produced by young people, such as photographs, videos and chat messages. Methodology: The research is primarily reviewing and analysing academic literature, policy papers, legal sources and statistical data. The main areas examined include the increasing prevalence of self-generated child sexual abuse material (CSAM), how contemporary peer-to-peer relations amongst children impact the self-production of sexual material, and how creating sexual content online for commercial reasons and the development of digital technologies add to the complexity and ambiguities of investigations. Findings: Findings in this paper highlight that law enforcement alone will not be able to manage all the challenges that online child sexual abuse crimes imply on society and children in particular. They will need clear guidelines to differentiate between children's harmful and healthy online sexual behaviour and upto-date knowledge on how to avoid the unnecessary victimisation of children. Value: This paper promotes a more nuanced understanding of the complex phenomenon of children self-generating explicit content, which is often embedded within wider societal issues of peer-to-peer relations, financial deprivation and technological advancement. As a result, we will be able to better protect young people, distinguishing between adolescents' healthy and harmful online sexual behaviours, so resources can be prioritised and interventions carried out when authority is needed, avoiding the unnecessary criminalisation of children.

Anna Ševčíková is a Ph.D. student of psychology at the Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University. Her research interests include sexuality on the internet and online risky behaviour, such as cyberbullying. She is involved in national research projects that deal with online risks among Czech adolescents. David Šmahel is an associate professor at the Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University. He carries out research focusing on adolescents' Internet use, the construction of online identities, the development of virtual relationships, and addictive behaviour on the internet. He is an editor of the "Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace".

This study investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic school closures on peer victimization in Mexico and Russia. In addition to effects on academic performance and attendance, the lockdowns interfered with usual peer socialization experiences and interactions. We examined the effects on the problem of bullying victimization. Since all measures were originally in English, factorial invariance was established at the outset. Comparisons by country for frequency of victimization, type of victimization, harmfulness of the victimization experiences, location of the victimization, and relationships to the perpetrator, were calculated. Although the countries were similar in many ways, significant differences were detected on several items; one notable difference was the relationship to the perpetrator. In Mexico, the most common bully was siblings, while in Russia, the highest rank was for parents. Significant differences reflected the cultural contexts of each country; these cultura...

is a Ph.D. student of psychology at the Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University. Her research interests include sexuality on the internet and online risky behaviour, such as cyberbullying. She is involved in national research projects that deal with online risks among Czech adolescents. David Šmahel is an associate professor at the Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University. He carries out research focusing on adolescents' Internet use, the construction of online identities, the development of virtual relationships, and addictive behaviour on the internet. He is an editor of the "Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace". Mlada Otavová is a master's student of psychology at the Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University. Her research interests include online victimisation and cyberbullying.

This study investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic school closures on peer victimization in Mexico and  Russia.  In  addition  to  effects  on  academic  performance  and  attendance,  the  lockdowns  interfered  with  usual  peer  socialization  experiences  and  interactions.  We  examined  the  effects  on  the  problem  of  bullying  victimization.  Since  all  measures  were  originally  in  English,  factorial  invariance  was  established  at  the  outset.  Comparisons  by  country  for  frequency  of  victimization,  type  of  victimization,  harmfulness  of  the  victimization experiences, location of the victimization, and relationships to the perpetrator, were calculated. Although the countries were similar in many ways, significant differences were detected on several items; one notable  difference  was  the  relationship  to  the  perpetrator.  In  Mexico,  the  most  common  bully  was  siblings,  while in Russia, the highest rank was for parents. Significant differences ref lected the cultural contexts of each country; these cultural inf luences are discussed.

Background: Cyberbullying is a serious problem experienced by almost all countries. In Indonesia, the highest internet users are adolescents, so that adolescents are at risk of experiencing cyberbullying. Cyberbullying is bullying that is done through social media. Bullying carried out both traditionally and through social media has a psychological impact in the form of feelings of sadness and suicide attempts. Purpose: to determine the relationship between cyberbullying and the risk of suicidal ideation in adolescents. Methods: this study was a correlational study with a cross-sectional approach of 1.043 students from ten state high schools and four state vocational schools with random sampling. Data analysis used the Chi-Square test, Kruskal-Wallis test, and Mann-Whitney test. Results: As many as 21.0% of adolescents involved in cyberbullying are at risk of suicidal ideation. There is a relationship between cyberbullying and the risk of suicidal ideation in adolescents p = 0.000 (...

Cyberbullying is a major concern among university students, negatively impacting their psychosocial health and academic performance. Aim of study: evaluate the effect of educational program on social media cyberbullying among nursing college students at Benha University. Design: Quasi-experimental design was used. Setting: This study was conducted at Faculty of nursing, Benha University. Subjects: This study was carried on 1029 nursing students. Instruments of data collection: there were three instruments used: Tool I: Structured Interviewing Questionnaire sheet: It was divided into two parts. Part one: Personal characteristics of studied, Part two: Social media cyberbullying related data. Tool II: Structured knowledge Questionnaire to assess cyberbullying knowledge and Tool III: Cyber-Aggression Scale (CYB-AGS) to assess cyberbullying behavior. The study results showed that after program most of studied students had satisfactory total knowledge about cyberbullying. In addition to highly statistically significant negative association between knowledge and cyberbullying behavior was found post program than preprogram. Conclusion: The educational program was very effective in promoting students' knowledge and behavior regarding cyberbullying. Recommendations: Increasing awareness about cyberbullying and importance of adopting preventive strategies to control it through health education programs to all community especially were needed.

The contribution focuses on the risk aspects of digital communication in cyberspace with a specific emphasis on bullying and has a theoretical-empirical character. The authors focused on the theoretical reflection of cyber aggressors, presenting number of definitional framework in the context of addressing issues of domestic and foreign authors. The main part of the contribution is focused on the results of the research aimed at the personality of cyber aggressors, their motives, experienced emotions and behavioural tendencies in the cyberbullying process. An important part of the contribution represents authentic statements of cyber aggressors contracted in various contexts. In conclusion, the authors emphasize the importance of prevention and elimination activities, as well as media and digital literacy, which would help to reduce negative phenomena in the digital environment.

This study investigates women online victims, and aims to understand the reasons women avoid reporting to authorities. According to Federal Investigation Agency and National Response Centre for Cyber Crime, Pakistan, there has been a rise in cybercrime reporting during the year 2020. Due to Covid-19, the educational activities were shifted online throughout 2020, increasing the on-screen duration for every student. The excess use of internet during lockdown had a collateral damage in terms of increased cybercrimes. This paper will focus female victims of cyber-bullying and online harassment, in the light of the laws that empower women. Also brings to attention the cultural and psychological reasons for not reporting such crimes. With the increase in internet usage the cyber-bullying and harassment has also increased and most of the victims are women. The cultural barriers that prevent women to report cybercrimes is reflected in the theory of the spiral of silence. The paper addresses the need to identify the problem and introduce intervention for a positive social change and adapt to the new normal.

To address the topic of children’s online aggression, this article explores a subsample from the EU Kids Online dataset (2017–2019) of 1404 children, aged 9–16, who reported having engaged in aggressive acts online in the previous year. Through a cluster analysis, respondents were classified into three groups. Findings emphasize the risk factors for aggression and how they relate to age-specific developmental tasks. Boys predominate, but the gender gap is not as wide as in offline contexts. For almost half of the children, aggression goes hand in hand with victimization. All the clusters share high levels of emotional deprivation. A sense of lacking social support, from both adults and peers, becomes more relevant among those children with high and more problematic engagement in online aggression. Results confirm that online aggression must be considered within the complex and fluid offline–online continuum cutting across the social contexts in which children grow.

The contribution focuses on the risk aspects of digital communication in cyberspace with a specific emphasis on bullying and has a theoretical-empirical character. The authors focused on the theoretical reflection of cyber aggressors, presenting number of definitional framework in the context of addressing issues of domestic and foreign authors. The main part of the contribution is focused on the results of the research aimed at the personality of cyber aggressors, their motives, experienced emotions and behavioural tendencies in the cyberbullying process. An important part of the contribution represents authentic statements of cyber aggressors contracted in various contexts. In conclusion, the authors emphasize the importance of prevention and elimination activities, as well as media and digital literacy, which would help to reduce negative phenomena in the digital environment.

To address the topic of children’s online aggression, this article explores a subsample from the EU Kids Online dataset (2017–2019) of 1404 children, aged 9–16, who reported having engaged in aggressive acts online in the previous year. Through a cluster analysis, respondents were classified into three groups. Findings emphasize the risk factors for aggression and how they relate to age-specific developmental tasks. Boys predominate, but the gender gap is not as wide as in offline contexts. For almost half of the children, aggression goes hand in hand with victimization. All the clusters share high levels of emotional deprivation. A sense of lacking social support, from both adults and peers, becomes more relevant among those children with high and more problematic engagement in online aggression. Results confirm that online aggression must be considered within the complex and fluid offline–online continuum cutting across the social contexts in which children grow.

Online discrimination towards women and people of color has reached epidemic levels (Fox, Cruz, & Young Lee, 2015). Any woman or person of color who uses the internet runs the risk of attracting online users who would engage them in demeaning ways. As such, it is important that researchers are able to assess and understand these experiences and the possible effects on their well-being. In Chapter 1, I conducted a systematic review of cyberbullying measures. Although studies have documented the link between cyberbullying experiences and stress (i.e., psychological distress or perceived stress), there is a need to explore factors, such as intersectional identities, that may amplify this relationship. Using minority stress theory and intersectionality theory as a guiding framework, in Chapter 2, I examined three moderators of the relationship between cybervictimization experiences and stress—namely, attributing offenses to one’s race, gender, or both (i.e., being a woman of color). Dat...

This factsheet compares annual trends regarding the prevalence of unwanted digital communications in Aotearoa New Zealand based on participants' sexual orientation. There is emerging empirical evidence showing that people who identify as gender diverse and/or non-heterosexual report higher rates of risks and harm online. In New Zealand, for example, Netsafe's research has revealed that adults identifying as non-heterosexual (18 and over) are more likely to experience image-based sexual abuse (Pacheco et al., 2019) and online hate (Pacheco & Melhuish, 2018b) compared to those identifying as heterosexual 1. Similar patterns regarding online harassment have been reported in Australia and the United Kingdom (see Powell et al., 2018). To expand the available evidence, this factsheet presents new insights based on longitudinal data exploring and comparing the extent of four types of unwanted digital communications in the last two to three years. The factsheet looks at the prevalence of being the target and the sender of unwanted, potentially harmful digital communications that included physical threats, seeking to embarrass, stalking, and making a sexual advance 2 .

This factsheet presents findings from a study looking at the prevalence of unwanted digital communications in New Zealand during the nationwide COVID-19 lockdown. In December 2019 an infectious coronavirus disease, commonly known as COVID-19, was identified in Wuhan, China. The disease spread rapidly and became a global pandemic with, at the time of writing, 57 million COVID-19 cases and 1.5 million related deaths being reported worldwide 1. New Zealand's first COVID-19 case was confirmed on 28 February 2020, after which the number of cases began to rise significantly, prompting the New Zealand Government to introduce a nationwide lockdown on 25 March 2020. New Zealand's response to the pandemic has so far resulted in one of the lowest rates per million of cases and deaths in the OECD (Bretschger et al., 2020). However, achieving and maintaining this level of impact on medical health from COVID-19 has required significant disruption in New Zealand's social and economic life (Anderson et al., 2020; Poulton et al., 2020), with evidence of the potential psychological consequences of the lockdown beginning to emerge (Every-Palmer et al., 2020; Sibley et al., 2020).

About the Annual Population Survey 5 Key findings 11. Just over a third (36%) of those who experienced an unwanted digital communication said that they were approached by a stranger. 12. About a fifth (21%) of those who experienced an unwanted digital communication said that the experience was also part of a situation happening offline. 13. The most common emotional reactions among those who received an unwanted digital communication were feeling angry, frustrated, and distress. 14. The greatest impact people experience is caused by digital communications that encourage someone to hurt themselves or involve the sharing of intimate images without permission. These types of communications have a greater negative impact on a person's ability to do daily activities and take more of an emotional toll on those who receive them. ACCESSING SUPPORT SERVICES 15. Most people experiencing unwanted digital communications do not contact any support service. Those who sought support in the last year tended to contact an internet service provider or platform to request the removal of content, block the person responsible or to make others aware of the issue. Half of those who sought help say the support was effective. 16. When asked to consider the support they may seek if they experience an unwanted digital communication in future, the police were most frequently considered as a primary source of support (in particular if intimate images are shared online without permission). 17. Internet service providers tend to be considered helpful in removing content, while telecommunications support is thought to be more useful when being stalked online. Most people say they would not seek any help if they were to be excluded by a peer group.

To address the topic of children’s online aggression, this article explores a subsample from the EU Kids Online dataset (2017–2019) of 1404 children, aged 9–16, who reported having engaged in aggressive acts online in the previous year. Through a cluster analysis, respondents were classified into three groups. Findings emphasize the risk factors for aggression and how they relate to age-specific developmental tasks. Boys predominate, but the gender gap is not as wide as in offline contexts. For almost half of the children, aggression goes hand in hand with victimization. All the clusters share high levels of emotional deprivation. A sense of lacking social support, from both adults and peers, becomes more relevant among those children with high and more problematic engagement in online aggression. Results confirm that online aggression must be considered within the complex and fluid offline–online continuum cutting across the social contexts in which children grow.

To address the topic of children's online aggression, this article explores a subsample from the EU Kids Online dataset (2017-2019) of 1404 children, aged 9-16, who reported having engaged in aggressive acts online in the previous year. Through a cluster analysis, respondents were classified into three groups. Findings emphasize the risk factors for aggression and how they relate to age-specific developmental tasks. Boys predominate, but the gender gap is not as wide as in offline contexts. For almost half of the children, aggression goes hand in hand with victimization. All the clusters share high levels of emotional deprivation. A sense of lacking social support, from both adults and peers, becomes more relevant among those children with high and more problematic engagement in online aggression. Results confirm that online aggression must be considered within the complex and fluid offline-online continuum cutting across the social contexts in which children grow.

cyberbullying phenomenon among EFL students interactive communication somehow an exciting topic to discuss. Seeing foreign language speakers interact and communicate with each other on the internet, this is an interesting linguistic study for review. This present library study tries to explore ten high recognized papers from contemporary studies regarding cyberbullying among students’ interactive communication.  From these ten studies, this ongoing study constructs its perspective in seeing the cyberbullying context. This study uses a library study in qualitative approach and explores ten contemporary research about cyberbullying and came out with a result of present perspective and currently proposed terminology of cyberbullying among EFL bloggers.

Research is sparse on who targets whom in peer aggression. In this study, we investigated the harm associated with the type of relationship between aggressed and aggressor with an international sample of over 5,000 students aged 11-16, living in 12 nations. Best friends and individuals with whom the respondent had no relationship were the least likely to engage in aggression, while one-third of peer aggression could be attributed to friends (not best friends), and classmates/peers. Greater harm was experienced between best friends only when it involved relational aggression, such as spreading rumors and being left out. Harm from aggression varied by world location and number of different experiences of aggression, while gender and age differences were inconsistent. Intervention programs could take advantage of the vital role that friends play as socializing agents during adolescence that focus on the harmfulness of aggression undertaken in the guise of a joke.

Online hate speech has been a topic of public concern and research interest for some time. Initially the focus of this centred on the proliferation of online groups and websites promoting and distributing discriminatory content. Since the introduction of more interactive tools and platforms in the mid-2000s that enabled new and faster ways of disseminating content in a relatively anonymous fashion, concerns about online hate speech becoming a pervasive behavior have increased. Current research and analysis acknowledge the complex nature of online hate, the mediating role of technology and the influence of other contextual factors (e.g. social or political events). However, despite the growing attention on the topic, New Zealand-based research looking at personal experiences and/or exposure to online hate is surprisingly absent. This study seeks to address this gap. It builds on existing international research on young people’s experiences to explore those of the adult New Zealand population based on a nationally representative sample. The research instrument used for this study was an online survey conducted in June 2018. The maximum margin of error for the whole population is ±3.1% at the 95% confidence level. The sample is representative of the wider population on key demographics: age, gender, ethnicity, and location.

The current study examines the differences between those who have been cyberbullied online and on mobile devices (on-the-go) and those who have been cyberbullied online but not on mobile devices. Additionally, country differences in cyberbullying on-the-go are explored. Analyses were carried out employing a random stratified sample of 25,142 children aged 9-16 from 25 European countries. A multilevel stepwise logistic regression with cyberbullying mode (online and mobile phone vs. online only) as the dependent variable showed that among online bully victims being cyberbullied on-the-go was less likely in Bulgaria and Denmark and more likely in Sweden when compared to the odds across all countries. Moreover, being cyberbullied on-the-go was associated with being older, female and using the internet on-the-go (step 1), higher sensation seeking, psychological difficulties and being more upset by the experience (step 2) as well as a higher likelihood of being bullied via social networking sites (SNS) and instant messages (IM) but not the range of cyberbullying types experienced (step 3). In this last step of the analysis being upset by the experience as well as psychological difficulties ceased to be related to the mode of cyberbullying suggesting that cyberbullying experiences on SNS and IM are potential mechanisms by which cyberbullying on-the-go is experienced as more distressing.

The current study examines the differences between those who have been cyberbullied online and on mobile devices (on-the-go) and those who have been cyberbullied online but not on mobile devices. Additionally, country differences in cyberbullying on-the-go are explored. Analyses were carried out employing a random stratified sample of 25,142 children aged 9-16 from 25 European countries. A multilevel stepwise logistic regression with cyberbullying mode (online and mobile phone vs. online only) as the dependent variable showed that among online bully victims being cyberbullied on-the-go was less likely in Bulgaria and Denmark and more likely in Sweden when compared to the odds across all countries. Moreover, being cyberbullied on-the-go was associated with being older, female and using the internet on-the-go (step 1), higher sensation seeking, psychological difficulties and being more upset by the experience (step 2) as well as a higher likelihood of being bullied via social networking sites (SNS) and instant messages (IM) but not the range of cyberbullying types experienced (step 3). In this last step of the analysis being upset by the experience as well as psychological difficulties ceased to be related to the mode of cyberbullying suggesting that cyberbullying experiences on SNS and IM are potential mechanisms by which cyberbullying on-the-go is experienced as more distressing.

The goal of this study was to explore how victims of cyberbullying perceive online aggressive attacks and when they see them as harmful. Interviews were carried out with 16 cybervictimised participants aged 15–17 years. The findings showed differences in the perception of online victimisation when perpetrated by an anonymous Internet user versus by a known person from the real world. The tendency of unknown online aggressors to threaten to hurt their victims offline increased the victims' feelings of harm. Where cyberbullying interconnected with the school environment, the feeling of harm was intensified by collective perpetration, and by onlookers being personally identifiable. Where cyberbullying was a part of traditional bullying, online victimisation being discussed at school reproduced the bullying and thus the trauma. The results showed that the link between cyberbullying and the physical environment is significant with respect to the victim's perception of its severity.