Phase Change Material

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Phase Change Materials (PCMs) are substances that absorb or release thermal energy during phase transitions, typically between solid and liquid states. They are utilized in thermal energy storage systems to enhance energy efficiency by regulating temperature and managing heat flow in various applications, including building materials and electronic devices.

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Key research themes

1. How can thermal conductivity and heat transfer efficiency of Phase Change Materials be enhanced for improved thermal energy storage performance?

This research area focuses on overcoming the inherent low thermal conductivity of PCMs, a fundamental limitation that restricts heat transfer rates and the overall thermal response of latent heat storage systems. Enhancing thermal conductivity and heat transfer in PCM composites or PCM-storage systems increases charging and discharging rates, thereby improving energy storage efficiency, system responsiveness, and practical applicability, especially in heating/cooling and solar energy applications.

The Impact of Additives on the Main Properties of Phase Change Materials

by Ewelina Radomska

2025, Energies

Key finding: The study systematically reviews how the incorporation of high thermal conductivity materials (nano-, micro-, macro-scale additives) and encapsulation methods into solid-liquid PCMs improves thermal conductivity, sometimes by... Read more

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Recent progress on the morphology and thermal cycle of phase change materials (PCMs)/conductive filler composites: a mini review

by Teboho Mokhena

2023, Journal of Polymer Engineering

Key finding: By analyzing synthesis methods and morphology of PCM composites containing conductive fillers, this review highlights that filler type, dispersion, and interface properties critically affect thermal conductivity enhancements... Read more

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Techniques for Enhancing Thermal Conductivity and Heat Transfer in Phase Change Materials in Hybrid Phase Change Material–Water Storage Tanks

by Martin Lopusniak

2025, Applied sciences

Key finding: Experimental investigation demonstrates that embedding a copper matrix in PCM reservoirs within hybrid PCM-water tanks increases the PCM’s effective thermal conductivity, significantly reducing melting and solidification... Read more

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A comprehensive review of micro/nano enhanced phase change materials

by Hakeem Niyas

2021, Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry

Key finding: This comprehensive review catalogs various micro- and nano-scale enhancement techniques for PCMs showing that methods such as nanoparticle doping, microencapsulation, and phase dispersion create increased thermal conductivity... Read more

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2. What are the advances and challenges in PCM-based thermal energy storage system design for integration in renewable energy and building applications?

This theme centers on integrating PCMs into practical latent heat storage systems across renewable energy (notably solar) and building sectors for energy efficiency and thermal comfort. It addresses design paradigms for system integration including PCM selection, thermal management, containment strategies, and lifecycle/environmental issues. The focus is on achieving reliable, efficient, and cost-effective PCM-based thermal storage solutions compatible with intermittency of renewables and building operational needs.

Phase Change Materials—Applications and Systems Designs: A Literature Review

by Marian DIaconu

2023, Designs

Key finding: The paper identifies market-driven and technical challenges in PCM application systems, emphasizing the importance of matching PCM properties to specific applications like solar systems, electric vehicle battery thermal... Read more

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Performance evaluation of phase change materials for thermal comfort in a hot climate region

by oumaima IMGHOURE

2024, Applied Thermal Engineering

Key finding: Using empirical and simulation methods, the study shows that integrating microencapsulated PCMs in building envelopes (walls, plasters) significantly reduces indoor peak temperatures and cooling load by up to 15%, enhancing... Read more

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Perspective on the Development of Energy Storage Technology Using Phase Change Materials in the Construction Industry: A Review

by Mariaenrica Frigione

2023, Energies

Key finding: This review presents a holistic perspective on PCM use in construction, detailing incorporation techniques into construction materials (mortar, concrete, boards), and analyzing their energy saving potential and economic... Read more

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Recent Advances, Development, and Impact of Using Phase Change Materials as Thermal Energy Storage in Different Solar Energy Systems: A Review

by Anmar Dulaimi

2023, Designs

Key finding: Focusing on solar thermal applications, this paper consolidates technologies deploying PCMs in solar collectors, ponds, air heaters, and chimneys, underscoring their role in buffering solar intermittency via latent heat... Read more

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Numerical Analysis of the Phase Change Material Impact on the Functionality of a Hybrid Photovoltaic Thermal Solar System in Transient Conditions

by Mohamed BOUZELMAD

2025, Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences

Key finding: Numerical modeling validated against experimental data reveals that hybrid photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) systems incorporating a PCM layer reduce PV cell operating temperatures by ~22°C, improving electrical efficiency by... Read more

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3. What are the material science developments and compositional innovations in organic, inorganic, and metallic PCMs, and how do they affect phase change behavior and applicability?

This theme explores recent material innovations including organic paraffins, salt hydrates, metallic PCMs, and eutectic mixtures with focus on their physicochemical properties such as latent heat, melting temperature, thermal conductivity, chemical stability, volume change, and cycling durability. Advances in new PCM classes and chemical modifiers offer opportunities for tailoring phase transition behaviors to specific energy storage and thermal management requirements, expanding the PCM applicability range.

Paraffin as Phase Change Material

by Amir Reza Vakhshouri

2021

Key finding: This chapter highlights paraffins as widely used organic PCMs due to their high latent heat, chemical stability, non-corrosiveness, and negligible subcooling. It elucidates solid-liquid phase transitions and classifies PCMs... Read more

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Use of Low Melting Point Metals and Alloys (Tm < 420 °C) as Phase Change Materials: A Review

by Behzad Niroumand

2023, Metals

Key finding: The paper reviews low melting point metallic PCMs (Zn, Ga, Bi, In, Sn based), demonstrating their superior thermal conductivity and latent heat compared to organic and salt-based PCMs. It discusses challenges such as... Read more

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Thermal analysis of novel third-generation phase-change materials with zinc as a chemical modifier

by Vishnu Saraswat

2023, RSC Advances

Key finding: This study explores Zn doping in multicomponent chalcogenide glasses, highlighting that Zn acts as a chemical modifier to tailor glass transition and crystallization behavior, influencing latent heat storage capacity and... Read more

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New library of phase-change materials with their selection by the Rényi entropy method

by Michal Schmirler

2023, Scientific Reports

Key finding: This extensive PCM database encompassing 500 substances with nine key properties (melting point, latent heat, thermal conductivity, cycleability, ignition temperature) supports systematic PCM selection for targeted... Read more

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All papers in Phase Change Material

Solar energy storage using phase change materials

by Muhammad Nadjib

2007, Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews

The continuous increase in the level of greenhouse gas emissions and the climb in fuel prices are the main driving forces behind efforts to more effectively utilise various sources of renewable energy. In many parts of the world, direct... more

Thermo-physical properties of some pure n-alkanes Table 4 from 135 to 216kJ/kg, for tetradecane from 172 to 258kJ/kg, for octadecane from 203 to 251 kJ/kg, etc. While studying some chemically pure organic matters, Dotsenko et al. [27] found that n-alkanes with odd numbers of carbon atoms in the molecule, such as pentadecane and heneicosane, have phase transition in their solid state. Since dodecane does not have this phase transition in its solid state, then its specific heat of 5.11 kJ/kgK, registered by Hong et al. [25] might be inaccurate (this value is much greater than the same property of water). Consequently, the heat of fusion for dodecane reported in [25] also needs careful consideration. It should be noted that the above substances are quite expensive and their application is restricted to special heat storage systems only. Commercial paraffins and paraffin waxes are more attractive for application in solar heating systems since these materials are produced in large quantities and widely used elsewhere. The information on thermo-physical properties of some paraffins and paraffin waxes is presented in Table 6. While studving sugar alcohol as a PCM. Kakuichi et al. [51] found that the properties of

Fig. 24. The variation of the solar-supplied fraction of the thermal load in the system with storage mass and collectors for water-based systems with PCES in Trabzon [119].

Thermo-physical properties of some phase change heat storage products from EPS Ltd *Authors evaluation; E—materials on the bases of salt hydrates; A—materials on the basis of alkane/aliphatic solutions.

Commercially manufactured phase change storage tanks

Total amount of heat exchanged during a Sh period [85] Fig. 8. The heat exchangers used by Nagano [85].

Myristic acid (58 wt%) + palmitic acid (42 wt%) Thermo-physical properties of some acid compositions and alkyl esters

Thermo-physical properties of some organic and inorganic materials

Fig. 1. The variation of enthalpy of erythritol [51]. Melting point, heat of fusion and cost of typical sugar alcohol (Kakiuchi et al. [51]) and its specific heat was determined using an adiabatic calorimeter. The variation o enthalpy, obtained from the tests, is shown in Fig. 1. The thermo-physical properties of th investigated samples of erythritol are presented in Table 8. It can be seen that erythritc behaves similar to ice and melts congruently. Its heat of fusion is 320 kJ/kg which is almos equal to that for ice. A specific feature is its high-density value. It should be noted tha there is also a 10% change in erythritol’s volume during the solid-to-liquid transition an therefore the storage vessel and heat exchanges need to be designed to take this int account. A supercooling phenomenon was observed during the experimental investiga tions. It was found that the freezing range for this material is 60-100 °C. Shukla et al. [54 when performing accelerated thermal cycle tests of erythritol, found that samples o commercial erythritol showed no signs of degradation during 75 thermal cycles an reported that the erythritol was supercooled by 15°C. Finally, mixtures on the basis of trimethylethane hydrate (TME), produced by Wako Pur Fy ee i SECRET: Raney ene Serene’ ee: i SE po Ey ee: Oe TY ee MB) oh in Ant, SoC Oe in ee Coe MERE See eee eT Cet

Fig. 23. A schematic diagram of the basic solar energy system in Trabzon [119].

M. Kenisarin, K. Mahkamov / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11 (2007) 1913-1965

Fig. 10. Fins for heat transfer enhancement [87]. Fig. 9. A scheme of the heat exchange container [85].

Fig. 15. Using carbon fibres inside a cylindrical capsule [96].

The time for the melting/freezing front to progress a 1-cm distance during cooling and heating and the calculated average heat flux [90]

Fig. 14. The cooling process of pure paraffin and composite PCMs, Tjnj = 59.5°C, Tpath = 50°C [95] M. Kenisarin, K. Mahkamov / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11 (2007) 1913-1965

Fig. 11. Aluminium fillings with VSP 25 and VSP 50 structures [89].

Fig. 7. The comparison of the total solidification time and the total quantity of stored heat for different configurations [86]. 36 = M. Kenisarin, K. Mahkamov / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11 (2007) 1913-1965

Fig. 16. The enhancement of the thermal conductivity in a phase change material [96]

Construction properties of the laboratory building in Trabzon (Kaygusuz [119

Fig. 28. A schematic diagram of the solar cooker box with a heat storage [167] Fig. 27. A schematic diagram of the solar cooker by Domanski et al. [166].

Fig. 25. Solar-assisted heat pump systems: (a) connected in series and (b) parallel connection [131]. M. Kenisarin, K. Mahkamov / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11 (2007) 1913-1965

Substances used for measurements [85] presented in Table 13. It can be seen that a simple increase in the number of fins does not ichieve a sufficient enhancement of the effective heat conductivity. During the Xperiments, Nagano [85] observed a single case when the effective heat transfer coefficient vas about twice the situation when a plane tube was used. The results obtained in this tudy contradict those obtained by Velraj et al. [50,86]. The absence of any detailed lescription of the experimental procedures prevents any explanation of the discrepancies. An example of recent investigations on the enhancement of heat transfer in HSM is the yaper by Stritih [87], which presents results of the experimental study of the heat transfer yrocesses in a rectangular HSU filled with paraffin RT 30 of Rubitherm. The experimental ipparatus is shown in Fig. 10. The fins for the heat transfer enhancement were made of teel with a thermal conductivity of 20W/mK. Thirty-two 1-mm-thick rectangular fins vith a height and a length of 0.5 and 0.12 m, respectively, were used. It was found that for

control equipment. Table 20 summarises data on the climatic conditions in Trabzon, Turkey for 1991. The collected solar energy was transferred to the storage tank which contained polyvinyl chloride tubes with 1500kg of calcium chloride hexahydrate. Whenever the space heating load was required, it was satisfied using the energy storage tank and the auxiliary energy source. During the heating season, the measured values of the mean collector and storage efficiencies were 0.60 and 0.70, respectively, with the 30-m* water solar collector used in the system. The solar-supplied fraction in the load was not as high as the collector and storage efficiencies for the same collector with the PCM, and its maximum value was around 0.30—0.35 because there were several days with cloudy conditions in the Trabzon region during the tests. A simulation programme based on the models of Morrison and Abdel-Khalik [118] was used to perform a theoretical study of the solar heating system with the PCES. The results obtained from these studies are presented in Fig. 24. As it can be seen, the solar fraction rose substantially when the specific storage mass was increased to 25-30kg of CaCl,- 6H O/m? of the solar collector. Although the further increase in the specific storage mass did not provide sufficient gains in the solar fraction. The author concluded that PCES using calcium chloride hexahydrate or sodium sulphate decahydrate could be effectively used for thermal energy storage, especially in a solar-assisted heat pump system for domestic heating (Table 21). Esen and Ayhan [125] reported results of a numerical simulation of a short-term heat storage system based on a storage tank with a PCM. These results demonstrated that the PCM properties, the cylinder radius, the mass flow rate and the inlet temperature of a heat a ET fh, Ge TY an ie ee mh me Co , oe 2. Climatic conditions in Trabzon over a heating season period (Kaygusuz [119])

Py et al. [99] investigated a new phase change composite material made of paraffin and the compressed, the expanded, natural graphite (CENG) matrix. The effective conductivity of this composite material, consisting of 65-95% of paraffin by weight was experimentally measured and calculated, and the results are presented in Fig. 20. The variation in this value reflects the different amounts of graphite in the composition (since it is defined by the nisotropy of graphite).

Fig. 21. The thermal behaviour of a PCM wallboard during heating—cooling cycles [113]. M. Kenisarin, K. Mahkamov / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11 (2007) 1913-1965

Thermo-physical properties of some eutectic composition of n-alkanes

Thermo-physical properties of some commercial paraffins and paraffin waxes

Fig. 6. An appearance of Lessing rings [86]. Fig. 5. Cross sections of the paraffin storage tube and locations of thermo-couples in the following configurations: (a) a plain tube, (b) a tube with fins, (c) a tube with Lessing rings, (d) a tube with bubble agitation [86].

Main characteristics of solar greenhouses with latent heat storage Table 21 these cylinders (mode 1). In the second case, HTF flowed through the pipes surrounded by the PCM (mode 2). The results of the modelling demonstrated that the thermo-physical properties of the PCM determined its melting time and that the selection of the PCM and configuration of the store should be considered simultaneously. It was also found that to store more of the incident solar energy, mode 2 was preferable. Finally, Esen [127] investigated experimentally and theoretically heat transfer processes in the cylindrical phase change storage tank coupled with a solar powered heat pump system. The same

The calculated heat storage values for various PCM-block combinations (Lee et al. [47] Fig. 21. For clarity, only one set out of many measurements was used in the discussion. Warm and cool air with the temperatures of 30-33 and 17-20 °C, respectively, was used for the heating—cooling cycles, thus, the PCM was completely melted and frozen. Thermal cycling tests for the above two PCMs demonstrated that there was no tendency for the PCM to migrate within the wallboard and there was no sensible deterioration in the thermal energy storage capacity of the wallboard.

Fig. 26. A cross-section of the cylindrical heat storage tank with a PCM [134].

Fig. 4. Time required to complete the solidification for various paraffin tube radii and numbers of fins by Velraj et al. [50]. In [82], the same researchers investigated the variation in the effective heat conductivity f the HSU when various highly conductive structures were embedded into the HSM. The lesigns considered in [82] are shown in Fig. 5. Internal longitudinal fins inside a cylindrical torage tube containing paraffin were used in the first design. In the second case, the tube vas filled with Lessing rings with the diameter of 1cm. These rings are widely used in hemical reactors to increase the surface contact. The Lessing rings are made of steel and ave a thin-wall hollow cylindrical structure with a partition, see Fig. 6, and occupy about 0% of the tube’s volume. Experiments demonstrate that the time needed to complete the olidification is approximately one-ninth of that for the plain tube, see Fig. 7. In the third

Different materials investigated by Hafner and Schwarzer [89] as a filling in the paraffin storage system

Fig. 19. A scheme of an experimental apparatus and the location of thermo-couples [97]. Fig. 18. A thermal energy storage unit filled with brushes made of carbon fibres [97]

Fig. 22. A prototype of a TIM—PCM external wall system for solar space heating and day-lighting [114].

Fig. 2. Commercially manufactured phase change heat storage products. 2.4. Commercially produced heat storage tanks (HSTs)

Fig. 12. The heat conductivity of different paraffin-metal filling LHSMs [89].

Fig. 3. A cross-section of the typical tube-fin arrangement for the LHTS system [50].

Fig. 13. A slice of the PCM-graphite composite material [95].

Fig. 17. The enhancement of the thermal conductivity in phase change materials using random carbon fibres [96].

44 M. Kenisarin, K. Mahkamov / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11 (2007) 1913-1965

Thermo-physical properties of some of investigated fatty acids

“Data from Zalba et al. [14]. >Our evaluation. Thermo-physical properties of some phase change heat storage products from TEAP Energy

Thermo-physical properties of some commercially available Rubitherm paraffins “Our calculations using presented data. >All prices are ex works Hamburg/Germany.

Some parameters of the water-based system in Trabzon (Kaygusuz [119]) Table 18 Another project using PCM heat storage technology was realised by the Canadian scientists J.W. Hodgins and T.W. Hoffman [6]. The two-storey residential house comprising 111 m? of floor area was completed in 1957 and used 12 tons of the nucleating Glauber’s salt, thickened with sodium silicate and containing chromate corrosion inhibitor. As in the earlier design, the PCM was contained in vertically arranged steel cans, yet again this experiment ended unsuccessfully due to the degradation of the PCM. The experience gained in the above two failed attempts prompted Jurinak and Abdel- Khalik [116-118] to numerically model air and liquid-based solar heating systems using PCMs as the HSM. The influence of the storage capacity magnitude, the storage unit heat transfer characteristics, the collector area and the location on the system performance were investigated using sodium sulphate decahydrate and paraffin wax. THe gewe? eee l= oll ceeeeeeton eee 1 asec ad hh we eee Sewn tnw era aw 2" lavseeme Lica Stic

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Review on thermal energy storage with phase change materials and applications

by NIKET PATIL

The use of a latent heat storage system using phase change materials (PCMs) is an effective way of storing thermal energy and has the advantages of high-energy storage density and the isothermal nature of the storage process. PCMs have... more