Roman Army

Tese aprovada com distinção e recomendada à publicação. Nesta tese investigamos a mobilização das forças sociais de apoio por meio da propaganda e da contrapropaganda imperiais no contexto do Principado de Nerva (96- 98). Para tanto, analisamos a construção das representações imperiais a partir dos tratados Strategemata e De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae de Frontino e de trinta moedas fabricadas em Roma entre os anos de 96 e 98. Defendemos que o início do regime antonino que se instalou em 96 significou um reordenamento das forças sociais de apoio por meio da desconstrução da imagem imperial de Domiciano (81-96) em simultâneo à edificação da imagem pública de Nerva. Ao difamar a memória do predecessor Domiciano e relegar a ele a pecha de tirano, o governo de Nerva se tornou a sua antítese por meio da amplificatio retórica das ações exercidas pelo princeps antonino, documentadas em Frontino e nas amoedações. Além disso, a damnatio memoriae de que o flaviano foi alvo preservou as memórias essencialmente negativas a respeito das ações de Domiciano no Principado e estas imagens serviram à propaganda do princeps antonino como forma de o diferenciar do antecessor por meio da contrapropaganda, conforme notamos no De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae de Frontino, nas amoedações e nas inscrições, nos bustos e nas estátuas do flaviano, nossa documentação complementar, que foram danificados. A legitimação do novo governo dependia dessas construções retórica-propagandísticas aptas aos grupos sociais que referendavam o imperium de Nerva. Para tanto, Nerva precisou empreender uma série de medidas que visavam o aumento de beneficia, tais como, as reformas na distribuição da água, os reparos dos aquedutos romanos, a manutenção das relações com os soldados e pretorianos, os laços com a aristocracia senatorial e a adoção de medidas que beneficiaram a plebe urbana de Roma e os habitantes da Península Itálica. Adotamos para esta investigação os conceitos de propaganda, contrapropaganda, força social de apoio e de oposição, representações e práticas, teatrocracia e os preceitos da retórica epidítica romana, notadamente, de Quintiliano. O método utilizado para a decodificação das mensagens contidas no corpus foi o da Análise de Conteúdo.

This chapter analyses the relationship between Zoukei Asobi and STEAM learning in Early Childhood Education, Primary Education and teacher education contexts. The proposal is based on a central idea: creative play with everyday materials can activate processes of scientific exploration, artistic thinking, problem solving, communication and collaboration, without artificially separating the technical, aesthetic and social dimensions of learning.

The study adopts a qualitative approach based on case studies and direct observation of workshops developed in Spanish educational settings and in an intergenerational educational fair. The experiences analysed include activities involving sand and mud, stamping, large cardboard, assembling, natural and artificial light, nature, newspaper, large plastics or fabrics, lines in space, the transformation of places, repeated objects and wind. These activities make it possible to observe how students construct knowledge through action, material manipulation, hypothesis generation and interaction with others.

The findings show that the integration of Zoukei Asobi and STEAM fosters critical skills, the connection between abstract concepts and practical experiences, environmental awareness, empathy, collaborative work and the transformation of the teacher’s role towards more open and interdisciplinary forms of facilitation. The chapter concludes that Zoukei Asobi can act as a pedagogical bridge between art, science and play, contributing a humanistic, inclusive and sustainable dimension to STEAM education.

Resumen:
Este capítulo analiza la relación entre Zoukei Asobi y aprendizaje STEAM en contextos de Educación Infantil, Educación Primaria y formación docente. La propuesta parte de una idea central: el juego creativo con materiales cotidianos puede activar procesos de exploración científica, pensamiento artístico, resolución de problemas, comunicación y colaboración, sin separar artificialmente las dimensiones técnica, estética y social del aprendizaje.

El estudio adopta un enfoque cualitativo basado en estudios de caso y observación directa de talleres desarrollados en centros educativos españoles y en una feria educativa intergeneracional. Las experiencias analizadas incluyen propuestas vinculadas a la arena y el barro, la estampación, los cartones grandes, el ensamblaje, la luz natural y artificial, la naturaleza, el papel de periódico, los plásticos o telas grandes, las líneas en el espacio, la transformación de lugares, los objetos repetidos y el viento. Estas actividades permiten observar cómo el alumnado construye conocimiento a partir de la acción, la manipulación material, la formulación de hipótesis y la interacción con otras personas.

Los resultados muestran que la integración entre Zoukei Asobi y STEAM favorece el desarrollo de habilidades críticas, la conexión entre conceptos abstractos y experiencias prácticas, la conciencia ambiental, la empatía, el trabajo colaborativo y la transformación del rol docente hacia formas de acompañamiento más abiertas e interdisciplinares. El capítulo concluye que el Zoukei Asobi puede actuar como un puente pedagógico entre arte, ciencia y juego, aportando una dimensión humanista, inclusiva y sostenible al enfoque STEAM.

Анотація доповіді на ХІ міжнародній конференції „Oblicza Wojny. Granice”, що проходитиме 11-12 червня 2026 р. Зміст сторінки (смішно коротити її ще більше у цьому форматі) представляє собою тезовий виклад ключових аспектів діяльності magister militum Соломона, що який поряд із верховним очільництвом підрозділів Імперії у Преторіанській префектурі Африки обіймав чин головного цивільного чиновника у регіоні.

The partial excavation of the military bath proved that the bath was smaller and further south than depicted in the
previous publication. The investigation resulted in the excavation of the drainage channel of the cold-water basin, the
praefurnium of the caldarium and part of the caldarium. The furnace between the side walls of the praefurnium contained
thick ash layers, and two big stone slabs lay under them. The stamped tiles discovered attest to the activity of the cohors
I Alpinorum equitata. This unit had its garrison in Sărățeni and probably the architects of this unit had expertise in the
construction of the baths and participated in building projects nearby, as in the baths in Inlăceni and in Călugăreni. It is to
be supposed that an aqueduct brought the fresh water to the bath from fountains of the Hill Firtoş.
The tiles of the hypocaust pillars of various shapes and sizes, including quadrilateral and circular ones with a
thickness between 7 and 15 cm indicate multiple repairs. While the building of the bath can be dated to the first half of the
2nd century, these repairs could have taken place at the end of this century or in the first half of the 3rd century, according
to the tiles with the stamp of cohors IIII Hispanorum.

This study reexamines a group of stone seals from Ḥorbat Naḥal Yatir and argues that earlier interpretations identifying some of them as Paleo-Hebrew administrative tools are unconvincing. It proposes instead that one key artifact, Seal No. 2, is best understood as a Roman military bread stamp. In addition, the study offers new interpretations for several other seals from the site, suggesting that they relate to local bread production within the rebel community. Together, these findings provide a revised and more nuanced understanding of the site's final occupation and the interactions between the Jewish rebels and the Roman army.

El presente trabajo supone un compendio de las memorias de excavación resultantes de los trabajos arqueológicos desarrollados en el descubrimiento y excavación del anfiteatro de la ciudad romana de Ammaia durante las campañas de 2019, 2020 y 20211.

The paper describes the archaeological study of a Byzantine-period monastery in Wadi Shiban (Israel). The goal was to document the remains of the monastery complex and caves, located in an isolated valley, making it an ideal site for a monastic community. The Kokhav Ya’akov cave, about 140 meters long, has nine entrances, most of them were used as light windows. Inside, halls with niches, basins, and water collection systems were found, indicating prolonged habitation. Discovered pottery and a 4th-century BCE coin let suggest that the cave was used during the Persian and Roman periods, and its structure is similar to Byzantine monasteries. Artificial objects in the Wadi Shiban complex, including caves and ruined surface structures, were also studied. The remains of a church and agricultural facilities were found, indicating the monastic community’s self-sufficiency. Mosaics, plastered cisterns, and 5th–7th century CE pottery confirm the monastery was inhabited in Byzantine period. All caves  ere carefully documented.

In the army of the Safavid state of Azerbaijan, soldiers used armor, shields, and helmets as means of defense. Both infantry and cavalry wore armor made of iron or steel, which protected them 12 Эркин Садыхзаде / История и её проблемы, 2025 №1, 5-13 from blows inflicted by cold weapons. In the 16th century, the use of ringed armor and plate-and ring mail was widespread in the Safavid state. In the Safavid army, two types of helmets were used – the shahr and the conical helmet. Along with the turban-style helmets, masked helmets were also employed in the Safavid army. Additionally, various types of shields were used in the Safavid military. The shields could be either circular or oval in shape, and were often covered with leather or metal.

Celts of Britain are not as primitive as we often think or as the Romans did, and in someways more advanced that the Ancient Egyptians often described as mighty and powerful. Celts had access to metals such and the highly advanced weapons. Though the Celts were invaded by the Romans.

Evin Corbin is a talented historian whose work "The Evolution of European Armor: from Antiquity to the Late Middle Ages" became an important event at the III International Scientific and Practical Conference "From the Stone Age to the Gallo‑Romans" in 2025.  He studies the development of defensive weapons not only in archives and sources, but also in practice, creating armor with his own hands. Evin Corbin is a dedicated, hardworking and inspiring young scientist whose passion for knowledge makes him a shining representative of a new generation of researchers of the history of the Middle Ages.

This materiality centred paper examines how the cult of Mithras, local cultural memory, initiate identity, and social mobility opportunities were refracted and reshaped through the production of and interaction with a specific type of cult image, the petrogenesis, depicting the birth of Mithras from stone. Socio-cultural processes were not just communicated through this stone medium but manifested on local and empire-wide scales. The paper analyses evidence from the western provinces, Danubian provinces, and Rome, and builds upon recent semiotic and sensorial contributions to Mithraism which have centralised practice, in contrast to early scholarship on doctrine. This paper demonstrates how the petrogenesis images were experienced within their wider sculptural, epigraphic, and architectural ensembles. Cult infrastructure and offerings referencing the local landscape would have heightened distinctly local experiences further. This paper proposes that the petrogenesis images as embodiments of Mithras would have been especially potent for the sculptors during the making process, as the two entered a uniquely intimate relationship. Subsequently, within the sensorial environment of Mithraea the potency of the images were symbolically charged in new ways, not just materially but spatially embedded in local cultural memory for a wider audience. Some variations would have been particularly resonant for soldiers, strengthening their bond with Mithras. More broadly, the cult provided avenues of social mobility for groups such as soldiers, freedmen, and enslaved individuals. Whilst other iconography and inscriptions articulated the cult's hierarchical grading system and focused on individual donors, I argue that the petrogenesis images first and foremost reinforced a script of belonging, bringing foreign, travelling, or marginalised groups closer to Mithras, each other, and local cultural mythologies. By foregrounding how people and stone monuments helped create one another, this paper more broadly contributes to current debates on materiality, mobility, and religious practice in the Roman provinces.

Excavations conducted in 2017 and 2019 near Tel Shalem in northern Israel revealed the impressive remains of a Roman fort. The fort was constructed during the early 2nd century CE and functioned until its planned dismantling and abandonment in the mid-3rd century CE. According to a wealth of archaeological and epigraphical finds, during the last two phases of occupation the Alae VII Phrygum, an auxiliary unit of the Roman army, was stationed at the fort. Impressive remains of glass windowpane fragments were discovered inside the regimental shrine, within the principia, the headquarters complex of the fort. The windowpanes were set prior to its refurbishment during the third phase, in 199-200 CE, and were used until its abandonment. This article focuses on the overall analysis of the windowpane fragments, which constitute one of the earliest attestations of glass windowpanes in the Levant. Their secure dating and welldocumented context contribute to our understanding of the early production technique and use of such windowpanes in a military sacred context in the Southern Levant. The online supplement presents the conservation processes of the windowpane fragments.

Forensic and archaeological examinations of human skeletons can provide us with evidence of violence. In this paper, we present the patterns of two cranial lesions found on an adult male (T173) buried in a grave in the necropolis 'Isolato 96', Messina, Sicily, dating back to the Roman Empire (1st century BC -1st century AD). The skull reveals two perimortem traumatic lesions, one produced by a sharp object on the right parietal bone and the other one on the left parietal bone, presumably the result of a fall. The interpretation of fracture patterns found in this cranium are an illustration of how forensic approaches can be applied with great benefit to archaeological specimens.

El artículo presenta un fragmento inédito de diploma militar romano conservado en el Museo Nacional de Arte Romano de Mérida datado en el año 128 d.C. Se trata de la tabula I de un diploma expedido bajo el reinado de Adriano. La relevancia del documento reside en que constituye uno de los primeros testimonios epigráficos que pueden fecharse con precisión en los que se atribuye a Adriano el título de Pater Patriae, aceptado definitivamente por el emperador en ese mismo año. Por otra parte, el estudio del extrinsecus permite atribuir el diploma a un soldado
de la cohors I Ulpia Dacorum, unidad reclutada en época de Trajano y estacionada en el frente sirio. La posible identificación del prefecto Tiberio Claudio Maximino sugiere que el fragmento podría corresponder al primer licenciamiento conocido de esta cohorte, aportando nuevos datos para la historia administrativa y militar del Oriente romano.

This pilot study investigates whether the chronological evenness of single-coin finds varies systematically across the riverine Rhine–Meuse delta (450–1200 CE) and evaluates its potential as a quantitative proxy for long-term landscape persistence. Drawing on 793 single coins grouped into five standardised 150-year periods and aggregated into four geomorphological quadrants, the analysis reveals highly significant differences in temporal distributions (χ² = 193.9, df = 12, p < .001, V = .286). The Pleistocene-influenced eastern quadrants (Northeast and Southeast) exhibit markedly higher chronological evenness and more continuous deposition patterns, whereas the western Holocene sectors show strongly peaked, episodic profiles. Intra-quadrant homogeneity was confirmed through pairwise cosine similarity (≥ 0.90). Supported by bootstrap resampling, PCA and hierarchical clustering, the results demonstrate that single-coin chronological evenness provides a simple yet robust proxy for polycentric settlement dynamics and differential landscape persistence in dynamic riverine environments.

El sacramentum militar fue un requisito tan importante para la organización militar romana como difícil de localizar y definir para la investigación moderna, que tradicionalmente ha priorizado unas fuentes sobre otras. Dentro de las fuentes que más atención han recibido, las literarias, ha habido obras muchísimo más utilizadas-como la Ab urbe condita de Livio o Annales e Historiae de Tácito-que otras, y dentro de esas otras destaca Epistulae de Cayo Plinio Cecilio Segundo. En esta obra, inserta en el rico género literario de la epistolografía, se encuentran dos menciones hechas por el autor del sacramentum, que a pesar de ser pocas, arrojan una descomunal cantidad de información. El objetivo de este trabajo es, precisamente, subrayar la importancia de dicha información, largo tiempo obviada, y aportar algunas interpretaciones sobre esta que arroje luz sobre el momento de incorporación de los reclutas al ejército romano, así como sobre la influencia que este fenómeno tuvo en el léxico cristiano del Occidente latino a partir del siglo III d.C.

Bei dem Beitrag handelt es sich um die neue Bearbeitung eines Grabdenkmals einer römischen Militärfamilie des 3. Jhs. n. Chr. Der Stein, der im Bereich des Gräberfeldes des norischen Kastells Boiodurum aufgestellt gewesen ist, trägt eine schwer lesbare Inschrift. Im Rahmen der Untersuchung mittels Streulicht- bzw. RTI-Scans konnten wir einen neue Lesung der Inschrift erarbeiten. Eingebettet werden diese Ergebnisse in eine Deutung des Denkmals bzw. eine Einordnung in die Gattung dieser Denkmäler von Militärfamilien, die eine Besonderheit des Donauraumes darstellen.

During 2009, ÚAPP Brno in conjunction with MZM Brno continued surveys using metal detectors at selected Moravian La Tène sites. The field survey has focused particularly on investigations of the settlement hinterland from the La Tène period in Nˇemˇcice near Prostějov and the surrounding settlements, sites in the Boskovice Furrow and the Staré Hradisko Celtic oppidum. Artifact assemblages were also recovered from two surveys of several sites in southern Moravia. Apart from the individual finds and the information they yielded, the surveys also provided more general information. These results reaffirm the view that it is necessary for archaeological institutions to conduct such metal detector surveys. The new finds have clearly added to our knowledge, particularly with regards to the La Tène culture, with the finding of a palmette-shaped belt-clasp from Drnholec, mask handle base from Polkovice, "Dreiblattknopf"
from Hevlín and two brooch fragments of a so far unknown type from Staré Hradisko, and unusually for the early Slavonic period north of the Danube, a rare Byzantine belt-clasp fragment (from Bedihošt’). Another artifact which further attests to the importance of metal detector surveys is a Late Roman brooch of the Hrušica type found at Dyjákovice, the first such find in the Czech Republic.

The paper publishes two assemblages of grave goods from the Suvorovskiy
necropolis in the Taman Peninsula excavated by T. V. Blavatskaya in 1951, actually
housed in the State Historical Museum. The finds of Attic ceramics and weaponry
allow dating them to the second quarter of the V century BC. The dates of the types
of core-formed glass vessels after M. McClellan’s chronology are consistent with their
archaeological context. In one case a more detailed chronology at the level of ‘generations’ singled out by M. McClellan for the published types of alabasters and aryballoi corresponds well to the date of other funerary offerings. In another case, the published burial complex enlarges the dataset of the dated finds of rare aryballoi varieties.
The presented materials complement the corpus of published burials with core-formed
vessels from the North Pontic region containing a representative assemblage of welldated grave goods.

Der Katalog besteht aus zwei Teilen, die jedoch fortlaufend nummeriert sind. Im ersten Teil werden die Denkmäler, die Infanteristen darstellen aufgeführt, im zweiten solche, die Reiter darstellen. Dabei sind zu den Reitern nur solche gerechnet worden, die anhand ihrer Inschrift eindeutig als Reiter zu identifizieren sind oder deren Darstellung eine eindeutige Zuordnung erlaubt, d. h. Darstellungen im Schema des triumphierenden Reiters oder der Pferdevorführung. Besonders im 3. Jh. n. Chr. zeigen viele Grabsteine Reiter im gleichen Habitus wie Infanteristen. Es kann daher durchaus sein, dass sich unter den Steinen des 3. Jh. ohne Inschrift auch einige Reiter befinden, die nicht als solche identifiziert werden konnten.

¿Cómo podríamos mejorar el aprendizaje en línea de estudiantes adultos con poco tiempo, reduciendo la carga académica y haciendo las clases más dinámicas? Actualmente, muchas clases en línea en la Licenciatura en Pedagogía se enfocan principalmente en explicaciones largas, lectura de diapositivas y tareas extensas como infografías, mapas conceptuales o investigaciones demasiado largas. Esto provoca que muchos estudiantes adultos tengan dificultades para mantenerse motivados, participar activamente y aplicar realmente lo aprendido, especialmente cuando tienen poco tiempo disponible por trabajo, familia u otras responsabilidades. Además, las actividades suelen enfocarse más en entregar productos académicos que en desarrollar competencias prácticas para el ámbito laboral.

Between 1982 and 1988 we had the opportunity to excavate the archaeological site of Atxa (Vitoria-Gasteiz, Álava). In this chapter I developed my research results on the buildings of the upper level, corresponding to the Roman period (Last quarter of the 1st century AD). Probably during the reign of Vespasian, a detachment of an unknown Roman military unit was sent to the area to carry out some mission, also unknown, and chose the hill of Atxa, deserted since the destruction of the Iron Age hillfort, as an appropriate place to establish itself.
A construction platoon arrived ahead to run the camp, erecting a temporary barrack as a lodging, to be dismantled when the new buildings reached it. The structures were wooden on stone foundations. The passus seems to have been used as dimensioning module.
The camp had no defenses, its northern limit being the buildings themselves and the west, a simple wall. The excavations have revealed at least the remains of five buildings: A principia, a double barrack block with accommodation for officers at its end, and three groups of warehouses, of which the central one could have been used as a workshop, too; finally, a fireplace and a garbage dump area. The end of the last stable settlement at Atxa came when the soldiers moved to a new destination, abandoning and perhaps dismantling the buildings.
Entre 1982 y 1988 tuvimos la oportunidad de excavar el yacimiento arqueológico de Atxa (Vitoria-Gasteiz, Álava). En este capítulo desarrollé mis resultados de investigación sobre las edificaciones del nivel superior, correspondiente a época romana (Último cuarto del siglo I de JC.). Probablemente durante el reinado de Vespasiano, un destacamento de una desconocida unidad militar romana fue enviado a la zona para llevar a cabo alguna misión, también ignota, y eligió como lugar apropiado para establecerse la colina de Atxa, desierta desde la destrucción del poblado de la Edad del Hierro.
Un pelotón de construcción llegó por delante para ejecutar el campamento, levantando para alojarse una barraca provisional, que fue desmontada cuando las nuevas edificaciones llegaron hasta ella. La técnica constructiva era colocar edificios de madera sobre muretes corridos de piedra y el módulo base para dimensionar las plantas, el passus.
El campamento no tenía defensas, siendo su límite Norte los propios edificios y el Oeste, una simple tapia. Las excavaciones han desvelado al menos restos de cinco edificios: Una principia, un barracón doble con alojamiento para oficiales en su extremo, y tres grupos de almacenes, de los cuales el central parece tener connotaciones de taller; además, un hogar y un área de basurero. El final del último asentamiento estable en Atxa llegó cuando los soldados se trasladaron a un nuevo destino, abandonando y quizá desmontando las construcciones.

En el artículo anterior, comentábamos las razones del fracaso de la formación tradicional en soft skills. Lo que contrasta paradójicamente con la fuerte-y creciente-necesidad de las organizaciones en potenciar estas competencias emocionales en las empresas, especialmente ante los cambios profundos que ha traído la transformación y muy recientemente la inteligencia artificial.

I Romani supportarono sempre i loro eserciti ricorrendo ai soldati alleati, noti con il nome di auxilia in quanto letteralmente aiutavano i cittadini che militavano nelle legioni. Fin dalla media repubblica ogni legione era affiancata da un\u2019ala e molti eserciti includevano contingenti di alleati non italici, che combattevano spesso secondo le loro usanze e di solito provenivano dalla zona in cui si svolgevano le operazioni militari. Anche sulla colonna Traiana l\u2019incidenza numerica degli auxilia risulta molto elevata, fatto questo che costituisce un riconoscimento significativo e del tutto nuovo nell\u2019arte celebrativa romana dell\u2019apporto di queste unit\ue0 per l\u2019ottenimento della vittoria di Traiano contro i Daci di Decebalo.Les Romains ont toujours eu recours aux soldats alli\ue9s, appel\ue9s auxilia : ces derniers aidaient litt\ue9ralement les citoyens qui combattaient dans les l\ue9gions. Depuis l\u2019\ue9poque m\ue9dio-r\ue9publicaine, chaque l\ue9gion \u...

UNESCO, OCDE, PISA) y una revisión teórica profunda, se sostiene la tesis de que la universidad ha priorizado la producción de capital humano certificado por encima del desarrollo integral del ser humano, además se examina cómo la estandarización de procesos y del acceso han desvirtuado la autonomía pedagógica y han generado un vacío de sentido en el aprendizaje, el análisis aborda la aparición repentina de la Inteligencia Artificial generativa y la brecha con el mercado laboral como tensiones que exigen una respuesta ética, finalmente, se propone la transición hacia ecosistemas de aprendizaje dialógico" como una vía innovadora para recuperar el alma de la educación.

This paper analyses the role of popular masses in politico-diplomatic contexts during the Middle Roman Republic, principaly through several North African episodes described in Appian’s Punica. It argues that Appian portrays the Carthaginian crowd as a decisive yet illegitimate political force, characterized by irrationality, violence, and emotional excess. By examining assemblies, riots, diplomatic crises, and public acts of collective violence, the paper explores how the historian links mass participation to civic degeneration and institutional collapse. Finally, it reassesses these narratives in light of modern debates on popular participation in ancient political systems.

After Vitoria-Gasteiz (2022) and Toulouse & Albi (2024), the Universitat de Girona is holding this Third Gathering of Roman Republican Historians from the Hispanic and French scholarly traditions. Organised by Martin Galinier (Perpignan), Jesús Huertas (Girona), and Toni Ñaco del Hoyo (ICREA-Girona), this colloquium benefits from the support by Department of History and Art History (Girona), Institute of Historical Research (Girona), Social Council of the University (Girona), and  the ACROSS Alliance (European Cross-Border University).

After Vitoria-Gasteiz (2022) and Toulouse & Albi (2024), the Universitat de Girona is holding this Third Gathering of Roman Republican Historians from the Hispanic and French scholarly traditions. Organised by Martin Galinier (Perpignan), Jesús Huertas (Girona), and Toni Ñaco del Hoyo (ICREA-Girona), this colloquium benefits from the support by Department of History and Art History (Girona), Institute of Historical Research (Girona), Social Council of the University (Girona), and  the ACROSS Alliance (European Cross-Border University).

This scientific article analyses the ambitions of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) under the leadership of Xi Jinping, a caricature of a tyrant, regarding the annexation of Taiwan, in the light of one of the greatest military disasters of antiquity: the Sicilian expedition (415-413 BC). By drawing on the concepts of hubris (excessive pride) and nemesis (divine punishment or strategic backlash), this comparative study highlights the structural vulnerabilities of a superpower that underestimates distance, local resilience, asymmetric technological gaps and the intervention of third-party alliances. This historical and political research also includes an analysis of ‘China’s Three Wars’ strategy - with a focus on its legal (lawfare) - and the overall economic costs of a blockade of the strait, demonstrating that an assault on Taipei could precipitate the fall of the Beijing regime, much like the collapse of the Athenian Empire at Syracuse, and could lead to the break-up of present-day mainland China as we know it, with the risk of civil war.

摘要
本文以古代最惨烈的军事灾难之一 - 西西里远征（公元前 415-413 年）为参照，分析了 在独裁者形象的习近平领导下，中华人民共和国（PRC）在吞并台湾问题上的野心。本项比较研究借鉴了“傲慢”（hubris）与“应”（nemesis）的概念，揭示了这个超级 大国在以下方面的结构性脆弱性：低估地理距离、忽视当地的韧性、忽视不对称的技 术差距，以及忽视第三方联盟的干预。这项历史与政治研究还包含对“中国三战”战略 的分析 - 重点关注其法律层面（法律战)-以及封锁海峡所带来的总体经济成本, 从而证 明对台北的进攻可能导致北京政权的垮台,正如昔日雅典帝国在, 并可能导致我们所熟 知的当今中国大陆解体，伴随 内战风险。

It is generally assumed that Cato’s influence on Roman politics was far out of proportion to his wealth and offices. This paper primarily explores Cato’s attitude towards wealth. The image of a man who advocates the puritanism of an idealized past suited the political goal of restoring the waning authority of the Senate perfectly, as it strove to curb the influence of the wealthy and reduce extraordinary appointments. Cato’s electoral defeat in 52 BC revealed that providing the moral high ground, this image and its stoic aspect adapted to desperate oppositional roles. Emphasizing the significance of Cato’s connections, his relative poverty should also be reevaluated. His unique character provided additional influence in everyday life, while through the agency of his allies, the traditional avenues of politics, even bribery in extreme cases, opened up before him without seriously tarnishing his image.

La collection Bibracte est éditée par BIBRACTE, Centre archéologique européen. Du nom antique de la capitale des Éduens, elle rassemble tout d'abord les résultats des recherches effectuées sur le site du Mont Beuvray et le territoire éduen, ensuite les actes des rencontres scientifiques organisées par le Centre archéologique, enfin des travaux majeurs relatifs à l'archéologie de l'Europe celtique. Le comité de lecture de la collection est constitué des membres du Conseil scientifique de bibracte.

There is a bitter irony that the food and water which soldiers in ancient armies needed to keep them alive, were partially converted by the same soldiers into waste that could potentially kill them. This was especially true for armies encamped in a location for a long period. The lethality of such waste went beyond the immediate vicinity of the troops, as the encampment indirectly affected the local environment and ecology, plus the living conditions and health of local inhabitants. Such, potentially deliberate, ancient 'eco-warfare' steadily expanded as military occupation lengthened, and the hazards could even linger after an army departed. Using the Roman armies operating during the second century BC against the oppidum of Numantia in northeastern Spain as an example, this article offers an insight into the staggering amount of sewage generated by ancient armies and the environmental impact of their camps, themes which have received relatively little academic attention.
This article updates and revises some of the statistics that I have previously published, as well as adds new material.

"Mejorar la empleabilidad y preparación profesional de los estudiantes universitarios mediante experiencias de aprendizaje innovadoras y conectadas con el mundo real" 1. El problema: ¿qué lo convierte en un desafío? Actualmente, muchas instituciones educativas continúan utilizando metodologías tradicionales centradas en clases magistrales, memorización de contenidos y evaluaciones teóricas. Aunque este modelo permite transmitir conocimientos, frecuentemente deja de lado el desarrollo de habilidades prácticas y competencias necesarias para el contexto laboral actual. Las empresas buscan perfiles con experiencia práctica, capacidad de resolver problemas, pensamiento crítico y habilidades digitales. Sin embargo, muchos estudiantes egresan sin haber trabajado en proyectos reales o situaciones similares a las del entorno profesional. Cuando el aprendizaje se percibe únicamente como teoría, muchos alumnos pierden interés y sienten que los contenidos no tienen relación con su vida cotidiana o con su futuro profesional. Competencias como liderazgo, trabajo colaborativo, comunicación efectiva, creatividad y adaptabilidad son esenciales actualmente, pero muchas veces no se fortalecen adecuadamente dentro del aula tradicional. Los estudiantes suelen acostumbrarse a recibir instrucciones y repetir información, en lugar de crear soluciones, experimentar o asumir riesgos de innovación.