Roman mortars

The present study examines the mineralogical, petrographic and chemical properties of limestone samples collected from Anah and Euphrates formations in western Iraq. The aim is to evaluate the limestone rocks of the Anah and Euphrates formations in the area between Anah and Al-Qaim towns, Western Iraq, for quicklime production. Analytical methods, including X-ray diffraction, thin section petrography, and chemical composition tests, were employed, in addition to the laboratory calcination and reactivity experiments conducted at 900, 1000, and 1100 °C. Four representative samples were collected from several locations within the two formations to evaluate the efficiency of conversion to lime. The chemical analysis confirmed existing high CaO content, particularly in Anah samples, supporting their suitability for quicklime production. Petrographic analysis highlighted variations in texture, from crystalline to fossiliferous and peloidal fabrics, which directly influenced reactivity. On the other hand, calcination experiments indicated that complete decomposition of CaCO₃ into CaO was achieved between 1000 and 1100 °C, with the optimum reactivity observed at 1000 °C. These findings emphasize the importance of controlling raw material quality and firing temperature to ensure efficient production of high-quality quicklime. This research contributes to the industrial utilization of Iraqi limestone and supports the sustainable exploitation of local raw materials. The study recommends that three sites, including Khazga Anah, Ancient Anah and Mashhad Euphrates, as the main source for lime production in the construction and chemical industries in the Western Desert.

Roman architectural and marine concrete structures, caementiciae structurae, have remained intact and functional for two millennia. A mortar fabricated with scoriaceous or pumiceous volcanic tephra aggregate (harenae fossiciae, pulvis) binds cobble-sized volcanic or carbonate rock and/or ceramic coarse aggregate (caementa). These clasts form a conglomeratic framework that reinforces the concrete. An early pozzolanic cementitious system, in which aggregates react with lime (calyx) hydrated with freshwater or seawater, binds the concrete. The components of this system then react with pore fluids to produce post-pozzolanic hydrated silicate phases, mainly strätlingite, Al-tobermorite, and phillipsite crystals, which remodel and toughen the concrete. A heterogeneous permeability structure facilitates these beneficial fluid-concrete interactions. The Ses Llumetes shipwreck provides a window into transport of pulvis pumiceous tephra as aggregate in marine structures. Roman natural scientists recorded accurate empirical observations.

The Adriatic coast of Apulia contains many coastal and underwater archaeological sites whose visibility and preservation are strongly influenced by rapid shoreline change, sand cover, and relative sea-level rise. These dynamic conditions make systematic documentation difficult and require approaches that can record sites repeatedly and at different scales. This thesis presents and tests a complex, integrated methodology for the identification, documentation, and interpretation of submerged and coastal cultural heritage. The workflow combines: (1) analysis of written sources and historical cartography; (2) multi-sensor remote sensing and geophysical survey in coastal and shallow-water environments (UAV and underwater photogrammetry, satellite and historical imagery, GNSS-RTK positioning, side-scan sonar, multibeam bathymetry, sub-bottom profiling, GPR, and magnetometry); (3) GIS-based integration of all datasets for spatial analysis and monitoring; and (4) archaeometric characterization of building materials using optical microscopy, quantitative XRPD, and SEM-EDS. Fieldwork was carried out during three archaeological expeditions in different areas of Apulia (2024–2025), including Porto Cesareo, Leuca, Le Cesine, and San Cataldo. While these surveys provided a regional framework and comparative data, the main focus of the thesis is the submerged structure at Le Cesine (Chiesa Sommersa / possible Roman lighthouse). This site was selected as the key case study because it allowed the full application of the integrated approach: repeated remote sensing and geophysical mapping, detailed 3D documentation, and targeted sampling of construction materials. Mortar samples from the Le Cesine structure were analysed to clarify construction technology and material provenance. Results show a lime–pozzolana marine mortar with volcanic feldspars, extensive secondary zeolites (especially phillipsite), and a high proportion of amorphous and smectite-proxy M-A-S-H / C-A-S-H gels, indicating long-term hydraulic reactions in seawater. SEM–EDS mineral chemistry suggests a Campanian/Phlegraean origin of part the volcanic aggregate. Overall, the thesis demonstrates that a complex methodological integration of remote sensing, GIS, and archaeometric analyses is effective for studying submerged coastal heritage in rapidly changing environments. The Le Cesine case study provides new evidence for Roman hydraulic construction along the Lupiae (ancient name of Lecce) coastline and establishes a solid baseline for future excavation, conservation, and provenancing research in Apulia.

This paper aims to carry out an archaeometric characterization of mortar samples taken from an underwater environment. The fishpond of the archaeological site of Castrum Novum (Santa Marinella, Rome, Italy) was chosen as a pilot site for experimentation. The masonry structures reached the maximum thickness at the apex of the fishpond (4.70 m) and consisted of a concrete conglomerate composed of slightly rough stones of medium size bound with non-hydraulic mortar. After sampling, for a complete characterization of selected mortar fragments, different and complementary techniques (stereomicroscopy, polarizing optical microscopy, and X-ray powder diffraction analysis) were carried out in order to: a) define the minero-petrographic features; and b) investigate their state of conservation. The obtained data allowed the determination of the main constituents of mortars from a compositional point of view. The raw materials, in fact, were quite homogeneous, as well as the ratio in which the...

This work presents the results of an archaeometric investigation of the geomaterials used in the construction of the Late-Ancient wall of Emerita Augusta (actually Mérida, Spain), dated to the 5th century A.D., which is one of the best-preserved historical Roman ensembles in Europe. A deep knowledge of the geomaterials used in this ancient wall is very useful to obtain a reliable restoration and preservation of this historical monument successfully. To this end, a rigorous sampling procedure was conducted in areas containing original archaeological remains. A total of 13 samples (9 stones and 4 mortars), being representative enough for the whole building, were analysed through optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction, geochemical and thermogravimetric analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. This multi-method approach could be considered appropriate and advisable for built heritage materials. The mineralogical, textural, and geochemical properties of the granites allowed identify the granite types used in the wall, while the results of the mortars indicated that lime, completely carbonated and transformed into calcite, was used as the binding agent, with local geomaterials such as granite fragments as aggregates, and having a typical binder/aggregate ratio of Roman mortars. These findings facilitated a more comprehensive understanding of the geomaterials used in this ancient wall.

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Mortars from two medieval bridges (Charles Bridge in Prague and bridge in Roudnice) and two Roman bridges (Ponte di Augusto in Narni and bridge in Sardinia) were analyzed using various techniques to obtain their chemical and physical characteristics. The analysis of binder quality was based on thermogravimetric analysis, using an appropriate methodology which enables the hydraulicity of the mortar to be expressed by the CO2/H2O ratio. The mechanical tests were performed on non-standard mortar specimens. The ratio binder/aggregate was determined dissolving the binder by an acid, and a sieving analysis was applied to the separated aggregate. The material characteristics of mortars from historic bridges were compared with each other, taking into account the requirements for mortar strength according to construction position and degree of exposure.

Numerous buildings, monuments, and infrastructural works in Verona were constructed during the Roman period using stone, a material abundantly available from quarrying areas located relatively close to the city. Petrographic investigations conducted by Transmitted Polarized Light Optical Microscopy (TPL-OM) and complemented by colorimetric analysis on over 30 samples collected from urban buildings revealed a predominance of Middle-Late Mesozoic (MLM) local limestones, specifically Rosso Ammonitico Veronese (RAV), Maiolica, and Scaglia Rossa. These materials outcrop in the nearby Valpolicella and Valpantena areas, located approximately 20 and 12 km from the city, respectively. The widespread use of these MLM limestones in Verona from the late first century BC is particularly notable, as they were predominantly employed for the monumentalization of the city. These materials were commonly used in large ashlars, paving slabs, and decorative architectural elements. Rosso Ammonitico, in particular, was especially prized for its marble-like appearance, hardness, and durability. MLM limestones gradually replaced the local Eocene calcarenites (Pietra di Avesa, Pietra Galina, and Marne di Priabona) and Miocene calcarenites, as well as the imported Oligocene limestones from Berici Hills and Eastern Lessini (Pietra di Vicenza), which had been used in the earlier phases of Verona's architecture. Although these stones were more easily sourced and workable, they were characterized by lower mechanical performances (e.g., resistance to mechanical compression). The adoption of MLM limestones reflects deliberate construction and economic choices, indicating both a preference for more resistant materials and the city's increasing capacity to invest in costlier resources during the Imperial period. This study investigates the stone extraction and processing cycle of these limestones, aiming to identify their quarrying areas, transportation routes, and architectural applications in Roman-era Verona.

Domus of Octavius Quartio occupies the entire insula 2 of Region II in Pompeii, representing one of the most important village of this archaeological site. An interdisciplinary approach has been adopted in order to plan conservative, preventive and restoration actions aimed at the requalification of Pompeii within the frame of “Grande Progetto Pompei” program. 3D Laser scanner surveys and damage diagnosis following Fitzner’s method were carried out. The identification and description of weathering forms was carried out using ICOMOS-ISCS and NorMaL 1/88 recommendations, readapted and reinterpreted also for frescoes. Ten different weathering forms were identified; the frescoed room and the fountain are mainly affected by fissures, convex deformations, lacuna, efflorescence, discoloration, moist areas and patinas; the surrounding wall shows back weathering due to the disaggregation of bedding mortars; moreover the blocks are interested by rounding and biological colonization (lichens)....

International Conservation Studies (AICS) is a summer field school offering comprehensive education and training in the disciplines of Art Restoration, Historic Preservation, and Conservation.
The AICS program offers a unique platform for professionals and individuals from diverse fields, such as architectural conservation, library science, urban planning, art history, museology, archaeology, anthropology, historical studies, engineering, and fine arts, to gain exceptional practical and theoretical knowledge in cultural heritage preservation, administration, and research.
Through a combination of lectures, activities, fieldwork, workshops, and field trips, participants will acquire the necessary skills and expertise to effectively contribute to the planning, management, and study of cultural heritage sites and objects.

This article summarizes 19 conservation interventions, primarily restorations, implemented over the past 23 years on the Roman city walls of Augusta Prætoria (Italy). This important cycle of interventions marked a methodological shift compared to the first historical recoveries of the 19th century (first cycle) and the interventions of the 1930s and 1950s (second cycle). Beginning with an emergency in 2000, a new process will be initiated to study the construction techniques and original materials, as well as to develop restoration techniques and materials, particularly mortars that reproduce Roman-era formulations.

The topic of this study is the mineralogical and petrographic characterization of lime-based mortars of Hellenistic-Roman age (3rd century BCE), collected from a residential area located in the present historical centre of Palermo, near the remains of the Punic-Roman walls. The collected mortars have been analyzed by optical microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction analysis and scanning electron microscopy, coupled with energy-dispersive spectrometry. The aim of the study was the characterization of the mortars as pertaining to their aggregate and binder composition, aggregate size distribution and aggregate/binder ratio, so as to establish the provenance of raw materials and acquire information useful in terms of formulating suitable restoration mortars. The mineralogical and petrographic investigations allowed to recognize four different recipes used for the formulation of the studied mortars. The aggregate is made up of different proportions of alluvial calcareous and siliceous sands or, in some cases, by 'cocciopesto' -opus signinum. Aerial lime-based mortars have been attested for the majority of the wall coatings and decorations subject to analysis. Furthermore, an unusual mosaic flooring, manufactured with tesserae obtained from overfired, locally produced limestone scraps, was attested. The sandy aggregate was quarried from the coastal alluvial deposits of the river Oreto, whose estuary is situated in the vicinity of the ancient city walls. The binder was primarily produced by the calcination of locally available limestones, lacking in magnesium carbonate. It presents a satisfactory technological similarity with two roughly coeval manufactures, located in western Sicily and relating to the aggregate, as well as the mortars manufactured for the purpose of decorating the historical palaces of Palermo. This in turn indicates a remarkable continuity regarding the selection of locally available raw materials, an aspect mainly dictated by their qualitative characteristics.

Ensuring the long-term durability of cement-based materials is critical for safety over millennia. The Roman Concrete (RoC) project uses ancient Roman underwater concretes as analogues to validate reactive transport models for long-term ageing. This study focuses on hydration mechanisms in Roman concrete made with Phlegrean pozzolana, slaked lime, and seawater. Various techniques (XRD, SEM-EDS, NMR, nanoindentation, microtomography, ICP-OES, ion chromatography) were used to characterize hydration products. Casting underwater led to aragonite and brucite layers with a 60 GPa Young's modulus, protecting the concrete from further degradation. In the core, pozzolanic reactions produce C-(A)-S-H phases (Ca/Si = 1.2; Al/Si = 0.2) with a modulus of 12 GPa. HYTEC modeling confirmed the mechanism: incongruent pozzolan dissolution releases ions (K + , SiO₄ 4-, Al 3+ , Na +), promoting C-(A)-S-H formation and portlandite consumption.

Stratonikeia, one of the central cities of the Inner Caria Region in the ancient period, is located within the borders of the Eskihisar neighborhood of Yatağan District, Muğla Province. It is traced that the name of the region was Idrias at the beginning of the 5th century BC. The territory of Stratonikeia was ruled by the Seleucids in the final stages of Antiochus I’s reign after 268 BC, and the region was renamed Stratonikeia in 260 BC. Our study was carried out in the theater, one of the most important edifices in the Hellenistic city. The cavea of the theater was placed on the natural slope facing north, as in Greek theaters. Originally constructed as a single storey during the Hellenistic Period (2nd century BC), the theater's stage construction was expanded by two storeys during the Augustus Period to become a three-story structure. The original plaster and mortar samples from three distinct sections of the theater construction in the Ancient City of Stratonikeia were subjected to spot tests, conductivity measurements, calcination (ignition loss), acid loss, and sieve analyses. Point loading strengths were also evaluated. The binder/aggregate mixture ratios of the mortars at Stratonikeia Theatre were roughly calculated to be 1/3 during the evaluation of the analysis data. It was observed that the mortar mixture ratios are consistent with the ancient mortar measurements suggested by Vitruvius. Moreover, uniaxial compressive strengths were ascertained by the point loading test, and the existence of watersoluble salts and their pozzolanic mortar instances were examined based on conductivity measurements and ignition loss results.

Expanded French version of chapter “5. Villa romana: Wandmalereien” from the book by Peter J. Suter et al. (pp. 85-150) with a presentation of the sampling, restoration-conservation, description, and interpretation of the eighteen panels discovered in the villa's cryptoporticus. Celtic-Latin inscriptions painted in black surmount each of the scenes. These refer to local religious festivals, including one linked to Mandeure-Epomanduodurum, or to puns depicted in images. Shuttered windows are painted with plant motifs and opened onto the garden. The cryptoporticus, with its wooden floor and painted decoration, dates from the end of the 2nd century AD.

El presente trabajo persigue alzarse como un modelo de referencia para la actuación sobre pintura mural romana que, sobre la base de la metodología que se ha ido estableciendo a lo largo de los años en la arqueología española, sirva de guía para el análisis de este material en ámbito peninsular partiendo del estudio de caso de la domus de la Rua de Burgos de Évora. Este es resultado de los trabajos llevados a cabo en el marco del proyecto Circulación de talleres y sistemas decorativos en la Lusitania portuguesa: estudio arqueológico-arqueométrico de la pintura romana de Évora y su entorno, financiado por el Ministerio de Cultura de España en el marco del programa de actuaciones arqueológicas en el extranjero. Este proyecto tiene como objetivo el incremento del conocimiento sobre la decoración pictórica, desde un punto de vista compositivo pero también artesanal, en la Lusitania, sirviendo de nexo entre los estudios desarrollados en España y Portugal y permitiendo comenzar a aunar por primera vez los resultados de una misma realidad arqueológica hispana desde un punto de vista integral. De este modo, a través de una edición bilingüe, se estandarizan en un mismo volumen los procedimientos técnicos desde la excavación hasta el estudio, la publicación y divulgación, contando así con un modelo unificado para el territorio peninsular que permita un correcto tratamiento para arqueólogos, investigadores, conservadores y restauradores.

This research presents the preliminary results of the compositional characterisation of the structural and lining mortars of two significant buildings from the Roman Middle Imperial period in the ancient city of Nora, Sardinia, Italy. Mortars were analysed, coupling Transmitted-Light Polarized Optical Microscopy (TL-OM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (SEM-EDS), providing a detailed characterization of their compositions and production techniques. Moreover, SEM-EDS together with XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence) were adopted to analyse the pozzolanic volcanic aggregates and to define their provenance based on the comparison with geochemical reference literature.

This paper presents the preliminary results of the archaeometric characterisation of the structural and lining mortars from two major Roman infrastructures of the ancient city of Nora (Sardinia, Italy): the Terme a Mare baths and the urban aqueduct, which are dated to the 2nd–3rd century AD. A multi-analytical approach combining transmitted-light optical microscopy (TL-OM), scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) was adopted to investigate the mortars and their pozzolanic aggregates.
These findings provide new insights into the production technologies,
the supply of local and imported resources, and the organization of the workforce in Nora during the Middle Imperial age.

Knowledge of the characteristics of materials is an important source of information to understand the historical and archaeological evolution of mortars, with a view to finding a mortar with characteristics similar to ancient mortars, which can subsequently be used in the restoration of historic monuments. Mortars intended for the restoration of historic properties must be compatible with the characteristics of the materials to which they are to be applied. The purpose of this study is to characterize an ancient sand and lime mortar to which other components have been added, used in the construction of the Ottoman complex "Palais des Raï s"; and to identify its chemical composition and physical characteristics. Through the results obtained, we will try to make a comparison between the mortars of the Citadel of Algiers located in the Upper Kasbah, and Bastion 23 located in the Lower Casbah. Based on the various observations, we will be able to affirm or refute the hypothesis concerning the cause of the deterioration of the faç ades of Bastion 23.

The paper presents the results of the archaeological investigations carried out since 2010 by Ca’ Foscari University along the eastern bank of the river port of Aquileia. Through an interdisciplinary approach that integrates stratigraphic evidence with ceramic data, pollen analyses, and archaeometric studies of mortars and construction materials, the study reconstructs the long-term dynamics of human–environment interaction. It traces the evolution of the area from the exploitation of the natural riverbank prior to its stabilisation with stone structures, to the commercial use of the port facilities, the gradual silting-up of the watercourse, and finally the conversion of the area to productive activities.

Resumen This research studies the mineral composition characterization and internal texture of selected mortars collected from the church of San Pedro Apóstol of Polvoranca (Leganés, Madrid). The aim of the survey is to provide as much additional information as ...

Annual report on excavations in Augst in 2009  (feat. a pottery kiln & altar stone)  87
Annual report on excavations in Kaiseraugst in 2009 (feat. the «Löwenareal» excavation 2009.001 inside the Roman castrum & a Bell Beaker infant burial)    141

Archaeology taught on site: the public excavation 2010.058 (feat. geoprospection of the whole Eastern gate area)  185

Five years Geographic Information System (GIS) at Augusta Raurica (cultural heritage management)  193

Scientific analysis of Roman mortar from Augusta Raurica (archaeometry)  207

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Ausgrabungen in Augst im Jahre 2010 (mit Töpferofen & Steinaltar)      87
Ausgrabungen in Kaiseraugst im Jahre 2010 (mit Löwenareal-Grabung 2009.001 im Castrum inkl. Glockenbecher-Säuglingsbestattung)  141

Archäologie vor Ort vermittelt: Die Publikumsgrabung 2009.058 in Augusta Raurica (mit Geoprospektionsergebnissen des gesamten Osttorareals)  185

Fünf Jahre Geografisches Informationssystem in Augusta Raurica (Archiv & Kulturerbemanagement)  193

Naturwissenschaftliche Untersuchung römischer Mörtel aus Augusta Raurica (Archäometrie)  207

The Roman villa of Noheda, located in the municipality of Villar de Domingo García (Cuenca), is one of the most important archaeological sites in Spain and one of the most important museum complexes in Europe. In recent years, several archaeological investigations have been developed (archaeometry of building materials, natural resources, ways and roads). Furthermore, various restoration and consolidation works have been carried out on structures, walls and floors. The archaeological management team requested a characterisation of the mortars found in the coatings of the walls and floors of the complex to identify differences in its production. After checking the rooms, the state of conservation of the elements and the significance of the materials used, several mortar samples were analysed by means of macroscopic techniques before applying a petrographic analysis. The results showed an interesting variety in the distribution of aggregates, a complex microstratigraphy and a range of...

The objective of this article is to show the results obtained from the physical and macroscopic characterization of the mortars sampled by Isabel Marqués and Alejandro Bermúdez, archaeological directors of the intervention carried out in El Tejar settlement, in the municipality of Villamanta (Madrid, Spain). The results of this work have determined a relevant typological classification among the samples, highlighting the presence of siliceous aggregates, ceramics in some mortars, a very varied grading and a distribution of the components that have conditioned the conservation. Of the four samples taken -VMT1 to VMT4- one of them has an aqueous pigmentation, belonging to an inside plaster, while the others correspond to lime mortars with aggregates from hydraulic surfaces. The archaeological investigation of the deposit of Villamanta is complemented by an implementation check of lime mortars, being one of the most important Roman context of Madrid. This research add a sequence of new...