Sign Language Syntax

This paper investigates properties of role shift in Korean Sign Language (KSL) in contrast to those of "regular" indexical shifts induced by attitude predicates which are also available in the language. It is observed that there are complex interpretive possibilities of indexicals when these two kinds of shifts come together. Those interpretive possibilities include parallel vs. non-parallel shifts as well as all vs. mixed shifts. Parallel shifts are those where a 1 st person pronoun in a complement clause shifts its interpretation to the reported author whereas non-parallel shifts are those where the 1 st person pronoun surprisingly shifts its interpretation to the reported addressee. The 'all shift' interpretation obtains when all indexicals in a given clause shift together while the 'mixed shift' interpretation refers to those instances where only a subset of indexials shift. We propose that KSL has two kinds of shifty operators. One is 'role shift operator' which overwrites the context parameter with the locus mapping onto each individual. The other kind is a series of 'attitude shifty operators' in line with Deal (2020) which overwrite the context parameter with the intensional index. We demonstrate that the proposed relative hierarchy of these two kinds of shifty operators successfully accounts for the seemingly complex interpretive possibilities observed in KSL indexicals.

The linguistic features of sign languages are as intricate as those of spoken languages and in many cases, there are common universal features that they share. Modality is one important feature that sign and spoken languages exhibit, yet modality in sign languages differs from spoken languages in certain basic ways: grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic. This research is an attempt to investigate modality in Palestinian Sign Language and Arabic Sign Language, in general, using a descriptive approach by looking at the most frequent "modal devices" used in an endeavour to explore how basic modal meanings are expressed in Palestinian Sign Language. Data sources include but are not limited to Palestinian and Arabic Sign Language Dictionaries and sign user informants with various backgrounds. In order to identify the signs that express the meanings and to trace their possible motivations and their relation to other similar signs, data will be compared to some of the current signs that may have developed in the Arab world. The study will also investigate the characteristics of modality to arrive at an understanding to its function and examine how signs express modality in general, in an attempt to provide insights into sign language grammar.

Prior studies on spoken languages have shown that indefinite and interrogative pronouns may be formally very similar. Our research aims to understand if sign languages exhibit this type of affinity. This paper presents an overview of the phenomenon and reports on the results of two studies: a cross-linguistic survey based on a sample of 30 sign languages and an empirical investigation conducted with three deaf consultants of Catalan Sign Language (LSC). Our research shows that, in sign languages, certain signs have both existential and interrogative readings and it identifies the environments that make existential interpretations available in LSC.

Chapter 0 Preliminary considerations-The meaning of words and sentences 557 References 560 Chapter 1 Tense 560 1.0 Definitions and challenges 560 1.1 Absolute tense 562 1.2 Relative tense 563 1.3 Degree of remoteness 564 References 564 Chapter 2 Aspect 565 2.0 Definitions and challenges 565 2.1 Imperfective 566 2.1.1 Habitual 567 2.1.2 Continuative/durative 567 2.1.3 Progressive 567 2.1.4 Conative 568 2.2 Perfective 568 2.2.1 Iterative 568 2.2.2 Inceptive/Inchoative 568 2.2.3 Completive 569 References 569 Chapter 3 Event structure 570 3.0 Definitions and challenges 3.1 Event types 571 3.2 Testing event types 571 References 572 Chapter 4 Modality 572 4.0 Definitions and challenges 4.1 Epistemic and deontic modality 573 4.2 Modality coded by modals 573 4.3 Modality coded by modality expressions 575 4.4 Modality coded by non-manuals 576 References 577 Chapter 5 Evidentiality 578 5.0 Definitions and challenges 5.1 Grammatical evidentiality markers 580 5.2 Other markers of information source 581 References 582 Chapter 6 Argument structure 583 6.0 Definitions and challenges 583 6.1 Thematic roles 587 6.2 Semantic decomposition of thematic roles 589 References 590 Chapter 7 Classifier predicates 592 7.0 Definitions and challenges 7.1 Reference 594 7.2 Anaphora 594 References 595 Chapter 8 Comparison 596 8.0 Definitions and challenges 596 8.1 What can be compared? 597 8.2 Gradable predicates 598 8.3 Visible comparisons 600 8.4 Iconicity and comparative constructions 601 References 601 Chapter 9 Plurality and number 602 9.0 Definitions and challenges 602 9.0.1 Singularis and pluralis 602 9.0.2 General number 602 9.0.3 Paucal number 603 9.0.4 Dual, trial and quadral 603 9.0.5 Count nouns and mass nouns 603 9.1 Nominal plural 603 9.2 Verbal plural 604 9.3 Lexical plural 604 References 605 Chapter 10 Quantification 606 10.0 Definitions and challenges 606 10.1 Types of quantifiers 607 10.2 Strong and weak quantifiers 612 10.3 Quantifier interaction 613 References 614 Chapter 11 Possession 615 11.0 Definitions and challenges 615 11.0.1 Useful distinctions 616 11.0.2 Possessor: Animate or inanimate 617 11.0.3 Possessum: Alienable or inalienable 617 11.0.4 Existence, location or possession? 618 11.1 Strategies in coding possessives 618 11.2 Kinship 620 11.3 Whole-part relations 621 11.3.1 Body parts 621 11.3.2 Whole-part relations with an inanimate possessor 621 11.4 Ownership and association 622 11.4.1 Ownership 622 11.4.2 Association 622 References 623 Chapter 12 Negation 624 12.0 Definitions and challenges 624 12.1 Lexical negation 625 12.2 Sentential and constituent negation 625 12.3 Metalinguistic negation 627 References 627 Chapter 13 Illocutionary force 628 13.0 Definitions and challenges 628 13.1 Declarative force 629 13.2 Interrogative force 630 13.3 Imperative force 631 13.4 Exclamative force 633 13.4.1 Testing exclamatives: Factivity 634 13.4.2 Testing exclamatives: Scalar implicatures 634 13.4.3 Testing exclamatives: Question/answer pairs 634 References 635 Chapter 14 The meaning of embedded clauses 636 14.0 Definitions and challenges 636 14.1 Argument clauses 638 14.

Tactile sign languages used by Deafblind signers are most often acquired by signers competent in a visual sign language who can no longer rely on the grammatical system of the visual language as it is, since some of its features are lost due to the loss of vision. A natural question is which repair strategies are adopted to compensate for the loss of the grammatical features of the visual language that can no longer be perceived. We argue that the transformation of LIS (Italian Sign Language) into tactile Italian Sign Language (LISt) is constrained by grammatical principles, rather than reflecting communication strategies that in principle might compensate for the visual loss equally well. Certain innovations are introduced to carry over the grammatical features of LIS to LISt. Even when LISt undergoes processes that make it diverge from LIS, these processes are attested in other natural languages. For example, among the innovations unconsciously introduced by LISt signers we found ...

Scalar modifiers, such as the English at least, have been argued to have four different readings: a neutral, an epistemic, a concessive, and a qualifying reading. This paper investigates the expression of these four readings in German Sign Language against the background of the Bodily Mapping Hypothesis. This hypothesis states that there is a systematic mapping between the position of an operator in the syntactic structure and the height of the articulator expressing it: the higher in the structure an operator is located, the higher the body part used for its expression will be. It will be shown that the readings of 'at least' encoding CP-functions are expressed using upper face non-manual markings, while the neutral reading is expressed manually without any additional non-manuals-in line with the Bodily Mapping Hypothesis.

In this paper, we examine agent backgrounding in Italian Sign Language (LIS). Specifically, we are interested in identifying and describing the strategies used by LIS signers to reduce referentiality. On the basis of low-referential contexts (cf. questionnaire in the Introduction chapter), we recorded target sentences containing potential markers of agent backgrounding and asked three LIS native signers to provide felicity judgments on them using a 7-point scale. We discuss agent-backgrounding strategies of different types: (i) manual, (ii) non-manual, and (iii) syntactic. Overall, our study shows that the combination of raised eyebrows and mouth-corners down associated with the existential quantifier someone and the sign person makes the agent-backgrounding reading more prominent. Other strategies that can be used in LIS to reduce referentiality are free relatives, perspective shift, and null subject. We also investigate in more detail the semantic status of someone, person, and th...

Tactile sign languages used by Deafblind signers are most often acquired by signers competent in a visual sign language who can no longer rely on the grammatical system of the visual language as it is, since some of its features are lost due to the loss of vision. A natural question is which repair strategies are adopted to compensate for the loss of the grammatical features of the visual language that can no longer be perceived. We argue that the transformation of LIS (Italian Sign Language) into tactile Italian Sign Language (LISt) is constrained by grammatical principles, rather than reflecting communication strategies that in principle might compensate for the visual loss equally well. Certain innovations are introduced to carry over the grammatical features of LIS to LISt. Even when LISt undergoes processes that make it diverge from LIS, these processes are attested in other natural languages. For example, among the innovations unconsciously introduced by LISt signers we found ...

Essential grammatical information is conveyed in signed languages by clusters of events involving facial expressions and movements of the head and upper body. This poses a significant challenge for computer-based sign language recognition. Here, we present new methods for the recognition of nonmanual grammatical markers in American Sign Language (ASL) based on: (1) new 3D tracking methods for the estimation of 3D head pose and facial expressions to determine the relevant low-level features; (2) methods for higher-level analysis of component events (raised/lowered eyebrows, periodic head nods and head shakes) used in grammatical
markings—with differentiation of temporal phases (onset, core, offset, where appropriate), analysis of their characteristic properties, and extraction of corresponding features; (3) a 2-level learning framework to combine low- and high-level features of differing spatio-temporal scales. This new approach achieves significantly better tracking and recognition results than our previous methods.

This paper focuses on some effects and possible causes in the concatenation of two micro-­‐ developments undergone by words like rather. While the first one maps its semantics from an original temporal-­‐based comparison to modal meanings, the second takes it from modal ordering to the modification of gradable predicates. A comparison is drawn with the parallel sequel of developments observed in the case of German eher (‘sooner, rather’) especially with respect to the apparently distinct flavors of modal ordering available in the two items.

v forms and func,ons of the elements are comparable with what has been reported for other SLs and co-speech gesture and all three languages u,lize all forms of both elements similarly; v the associated non-manual features are not indica,ve of the manual form of the elements; v there is a recurring co-occurrence of PU and TA with certain lexical glosses, which raises a ques,on about the level of their lexicaliza,on; v this serves as an argument for viewing manual ac,vi,es as forming a cross-modal con,nuum along which func,onal conven,onaliza,on takes place.

This chapter offers an overview of the mechanisms used in sign languages (SLs) to report someone's utterances, thoughts or actions, which are commonly known as role shift. Despite being able to resort to embedding under attitude predicates for indirect reported discourse, SLs have a genuine strategy that flags the reported segment with an array of non-manual markers anchoring it to the reported subject, as well as with a displacement in the referential framework for indexicals. Relying on Catalan SL (LSC) data, we show that despite the surface appearance of direct quotation, we can actually distinguish role shift used for direct and indirect discourse: the lexical markers introducing it, the syntactic position of the reported clause and, most interestingly, the (non)-shifting option for indexicals signal the two types of quoted discourse.

This thesis not only investigates the unique patterns of reflexivity in Swiss German Sign Language (DSGS) by analyzing empirical data but also attempts a more general theory that could account for most reflexive constructions across Sign Languages (SLs). My hypothesis is that the different modality (manual-visual) and argument structure in DSGS have a major impact on agreement patterns and therefore restrict the possibility of reflexivizing. As for the AAE, I believe that what can be observed for DSGS (and most other well-researched SLs) isn't a violation of the AAE but not a typical case of the AAE either since the causes for the agreement patterns are often not (only) syntactic, as opposed to the agreement patterns (in reflexive constructions) of spoken languages (SpLs).

Note finally that we do not include elicitation materials in sections that belong to the Semantics part since elicitation materials can be found in corresponding sections in the Lexicon, Morphology, and Syntax parts. A detailed discussion of the methodology of semantic fieldwork and its relevance for grammatical description can be found in Matthewson (2004) and Bochnak & Matthewson (2015). In this section, the term tense is defined from a semantic point of view, and semantic distinctions useful for the grammar writer are briefly presented and explained. The morphosyntactic realization of tense is discussed in detail in the Morphology section Main sources on tense in sign languages:

Lewis (1980) claimed that English lacks a device by which a sentence of the form “I’m hungry ” may end up being true in a context if someone other than the speaker is hungry. A device of this sort, however, is quite common in the sign languages used by the Deaf communities all over the world and is part of a more general phenomenon sometimes referred to in the sign language literature as role shift. My discussion is based on data from Italian Sign Language. I propose an analysis of role shift that accounts for why the different constructions that make it up co-occur with the same non manual markings. I suggest, moreover, that its widespread use in sign languages may depend on the way gestures are structured in these languages. Finally, I compare my account of role shift with the one proposed in Lillo-Martin (1995) for American Sign Language and with the account of shifted first person indexicals proposed for Amharic in Schlenker (2000, 2003). 1 Lewis on shiftiness

The paper discusses some issues that arise from research on sign languages in the area of formal semantics. Sign languages provide a unique standpoint to investigate semantic phenomena like donkey anaphora, indexical reference shift, and tense. Moreover, they pose a challenge for semantic theories, since movement verbs display gradient properties (semi-continuous variations with semantic import). The paper presents and discusses some accounts that have been proposed. 1. Introduction Research on the grammar of sign languages, whether in phonology, syntax, or semantics, shows, on the one hand, how similar sign languages are to spoken languages, how the structures we find in the grammars of spoken languages are also found in sign language grammars, once we abstract from the different modalities these languages use (phonetic vs. visual); on the other hand, linguistic research on sign languages also reveals how different they are from spoken languages: how features not overtly instantiated or rarely occurring in spoken languages are overtly marked and quite common in sign languages. Through the investigation of these similarities and differences, theoretical issues may be resolved and significant questions may arise concerning the form of natural language grammars. Here, I'll discuss some of these issues and questions coming from research in formal semantics. I'll concentrate on four areas: pronominal anaphora, indexicals, tense, and verbs of motion. 2. Pronominal Anaphora An issue that has engaged formal semanticists for a long time concerns the phenomenon of so-called donkey anaphora, originally pointed out by Geach (1962), in which a pronoun is construed with an indefinite antecedent in a different clause: (1) a. If a man owns a donkey, he beats it b. Every man who owns a donkey beats it c. A man broke the bank at Monte Carlo, and he recently died a pauper. One question that arises in relation to (1) concerns the nature of the anaphoric relation between the pronoun and its indefinite antecedent. According to some theories, it's a relation of variable binding, namely in the logical forms of (1) the pronouns ''he'' and ''it'' are variables bound by quantifiers, where binding involves coindexing with the quantifier, as in 2: 1 (2) $ i man i broke the bank at Monte Carlo, and he i recently died a pauper. According to other theories, the pronouns in (1) are disguised definite descriptions: for example, (1c) is interpreted on a par with (3) below, where the description ''the man

Author(s): Makharoblidze, Tamar | Abstract: Modality is one of the most fascinating and complex areas of language studies. This paper illustrates the types of modal constructions in Georgian Sign language (GESL), including negative forms. GESL shows modality semantics with a combination of manual and facial signs. Modals in GESL can occur in the pre-verbal, clause-final, or clause-initial positions, as in many other sign languages (SLs). GESL modal constructions show the specific tense-related negation strategy. Modal constructions in this language often use combinations of modal signs with an equal value.

In this paper, we examine agent backgrounding in Italian Sign Language (LIS). Specifically, we are interested in identifying and describing the strategies used by LIS signers to reduce referentiality. On the basis of low-referential contexts (cf. questionnaire in the Introduction chapter), we recorded target sentences containing potential markers of agent backgrounding and asked three LIS native signers to provide felicity judgments on them using a 7-point scale. We discuss agent-backgrounding strategies of different types: (i) manual, (ii) non-manual, and (iii) syntactic. Overall, our study shows that the combination of raised eyebrows and mouth-corners down associated with the existential quantifier someone and the sign person makes the agent-backgrounding reading more prominent. Other strategies that can be used in LIS to reduce referentiality are free relatives, perspective shift, and null subject. We also investigate in more detail the semantic status of someone, person, and th...

Much of the work on attitude predicates, spawned by Hintikka (1962), treats them as a uniform class – quantifiers over possible worlds. However, recently a number of suggestions have been made that highlight different subclasses. Here we present novel data from American Sign Language (ASL) that support a differentiation made by Anand and Hacquard (2008) concerning the objectivity and subjectivity of their complements, while also bringing into focus a special property of Sign Languages – role shift.

This paper presents a comprehensive overview of the encoding strategies of different types of topics and foci in (the southern variant of) German Sign Language (Deutsche Gebärdensprache, DGS). The discussion will be guided by two main hypotheses: (i) the existence of a strict, universal ordering of topic and focus projections in the tradition of Rizzi (1997) and (ii) the Bodily Mapping Hypothesis (Bross & Hole 2017; Bross 2020), i. e., the hypothesis that scope is expressed in a systematic way in sign languages: the higher an operator is located in the syntactic tree, the higher the articulator expressing it will be. As this study is concerned with very high CP categories, the Bodily Mapping Hypothesis predicts that the categories under discussion will be marked with the highest possible articulators, i.e., the eyebrows. Concerning topics, base-generated frame setters (epistemic, locative, and temporal frames) and moved aboutness topics will be discussed as well as structures resembling pseudo-clefts. Concerning focus, contrastive and mirative focus as well as regular cleft sentences will be examined.

The scope order of clausal categories has been claimed to be universal. In this paper we adopt a universalist cartographic approach to clausal syntax. By discussing the categories of speech acts, evaluation, epistemic modality, scalarity, volition and deontic, as well as other kinds of modality, we illustrate a striking regularity in strategies of scope-taking in German Sign Language (DGS): the wider/higher the scope of a clausal operator, the more likely its expression will occur with a high body part by way of layering; namely, descending from the eyebrows to the lower face, tentatively to the shoulders, and finally switching to manual expressions. For intermediate operators a left-to-right concatenation strategy is employed, and low categories are expressed by way of a manual right-to-left concatenation strategy. Hence, we propose a highly regular natural mapping of the scope-order of clausal categories onto the body. This sort of mapping can also be observed in other sign languages and may turn out to be universal.

Die Herausgeberinnen Ulrike Domahs und Beatrice Primus legen mit dem Handbuch Laut, Gebärde, Buchstabe den zweiten Band der Reihe Handbücher Sprachwissen vor. Dieses hat es sich zum Ziel gesetzt, aus diversen Blickwinkeln sprachliche Zusammenhänge zu untersuchen, geht dabei aberso die Reihenbeschreibung im Klappentext -"von den sprachlichen Phänomenen selbst aus, nicht von linguistischen Teildisziplinen". Schon der Titel des vorliegenden Bandes unterstreicht diesen Gedanken: Die zentralen Einheiten Laut, Gebärde und Buchstabe rücken drei Formen von Sprache und mit ihnen eine "modalitätsübergreifende Sichtweise auf die Phonologie" (S. ix) ins Zentrum der Betrachtung, die bereits in Primus anhand der Silbe präsentiert wurde. Dass diese Sichtweise in den insgesamt 26 Beiträgen überzeugen kann, ist ohne Zweifel das größte Verdienst dieses beachtenswerten Bandes. Gleichzeitig eröffnen sich dadurch jedoch so viele Fragestellungen, dass es unmöglich gewesen wäre, sie alle auf den etwas mehr als 500 Seiten zu berücksichtigenmanche der dadurch entstandenen Lücken sind gravierender als andere.

This squib brings forth new data which serve two purposes: on the one hand, it offers evidence against the uniform treatment of embedding attitude predicates, and on the other, it offers a diagnostic tool for theories of embedding via role-shift – a
phenomenon frequently occurring in sign languages in general and American Sign Language (ASL) in particular.

Much of the work on attitude predicates, spawned by Hintikka (1962), treats them as a uniform class – quantifiers over possible worlds. However, recently a number of suggestions have been made that highlight different subclasses. Here we present novel
data from American Sign Language (ASL) that support a differentiation made by Anand and Hacquard (2008) concerning the objectivity and subjectivity of their complements, while also bringing into focus a special property of Sign Languages –role shift.

The paper discusses some issues that arise from research on sign languages in the area of formal semantics. Sign languages provide a unique standpoint to investigate semantic phenomena like donkey anaphora, indexical reference shift, and tense. Moreover, they pose a challenge for semantic theories, since movement verbs display gradient properties (semi-continuous variations with semantic import). The paper presents and discusses some accounts that have been proposed.

If the results of the present study yield typical characteristics of early language acquisition and wh-questions acquisition to provide further evidence that language acquistion in DGS is comparable to language acquisition in spoken languages. Equally it should lead to some information about important specific typological phenomena for wh-acquisition in DGS. That is, evidence of the importance of the interaction of manuals and non-manuals.