Travel Behaviour Change

The „I didn‟t see him/her‟ defence is a cliche when it comes to incidents involving motor vehicle drivers and cyclists on the road. The same statement could equally be used to describe much mainstream transport planning as far as cyclists are concerned and the absence or incorrect use of data on bicycle use has led to distortion of resource allocation away from projects to benefit cycling safety (Ker, 1994).

Simple evaluation frameworks lend themselves to clear specification. As governments and others increasingly recognise the interconnectedness of initiatives in achieving a wide range of outcomes (the so-called 'triple bottom line') and build these broad outcomes into the measurement of performance, the task of the evaluator becomes ever more complex. Complex evaluation requires more flexible frameworks, analysis and presentation so that information is exposed rather than concelaed and that judgements are made transparently and by those who have been entrusted with the responsibility of doing so. Indeed, we can no longer consider the process and content of evaluation in isolation from its presentation. Conventional socio-economic and multi-criteria frameworks, for so long the staple of public sector evaluation in areas such as infrastructure investment and market-based service provision (such as public transport) have consistently had difficulty in addressing the triple bottom line, usually relegating social and environmental impacts to the twilight zone of 'externalities' and resorting to sensitivity analysis where judgements are made. This paper discusses issues raised by the triple bottom line requirements, how they are being addressed in evaluation practice, including some specific examples, and what further developments are on the horizon.

Simple evaluation frameworks lend themselves to clear specification. As governments and others increasingly recognise the interconnectedness of initiatives in achieving a wide range of outcomes (the so-called 'triple bottom line') and build these broad outcomes into the measurement of performance, the task of the evaluator becomes ever more complex. Complex evaluation requires more flexible frameworks, analysis and presentation so that information is exposed rather than concelaed and that judgements are made transparently and by those who have been entrusted with the responsibility of doing so. Indeed, we can no longer consider the process and content of evaluation in isolation from its presentation. Conventional socio-economic and multi-criteria frameworks, for so long the staple of public sector evaluation in areas such as infrastructure investment and market-based service provision (such as public transport) have consistently had difficulty in addressing the triple bott...

The past 20 years has seen a rapid growth across the world in the number, range and scale of voluntary travel behaviour change (VTBC) initiatives. These socalled 'soft' measures have challenged the assumption that modal shift is only possible through 'hard' system-based measures, or through regulation. Among the most high-profile VTBC initiatives is a household-based behaviour change technique known as Individualised Travel Marketing. This dialogue marketing approach was developed by Socialdata (under the brand name IndiMark ® ) in response to its own research suggesting that a lack of information and motivation, and incorrect perceptions of the alternatives to the car, were significant barriers to modal shift. IndiMark has been applied in more than 100 pilot and nearly 150 large-scale projects, targeting a total of more than three million people on three continents. A key factor in this widespread take up has been the consistent use of a detailed evaluation design, employing travel behaviour surveys before and after the IndiMark intervention, using Socialdata's KONTIV ® survey method. This well-established design uses a self-administered, mail-back questionnaire, coupled with motivation by post and telephone to encourage high response rates (typically between 60% and 80%) helping to provide reliable data on mobility behaviour.

The Journey to Work (JTW) data, collected through the Census of Population and Housing every five years in Australia, provides important information on commuting needed for urban transport planning and modelling. This paper analyses JTW travel patterns in the Sydney Statistical Division (SD) using the JTW data derived from the 1981 to 2006 Census collections (1986 omitted), summarising some key transport travel characteristics including mode share, access mode to public transport and trip length. This paper also undertakes analysis of the changes to land use including residential and work location changes. Travel between Statistical Sub-Divisions (SSDs) is also analyed. This investigation is motivated by the Metropolitan Transport Plan (NSW Government, 2010) which aims to connect the City of Cities.

I felt humiliated-I had the impression that, as a woman with two inconvenient children and some inconvenient luggage [a pram], I was barely tolerated on that bus system. Obviously two factors influenced my feelings there-the attitude of the driver and the design of the bus, neither of which made allowance for my-not-extraordinary-needs." (Wright 1994:33) "...the physical environment both reflects and conditions the wellbeing of children and gives children a very clear message about how they are valued (or not) within their community." (Woolcock & Steele 2008:5) Notions of public good and community obligations underpin public transport provision and are based on principles of equal citizenship and people's individual rights.

The limited availability of public transportation in Saudi Arabia leads to an increased demand for private vehicles. An increase in using private cars does not meet the global sustainability goals, e.g., reducing energy consumption and improving the air quality. Road users should be encouraged to use sustainable mobility modes, particularly public transportation, equally accessible to both men and women However, women's mobility has been somewhat limited and challenged in spatio-temporal terms, and partly due to socio-cultural barriers. This study attempts to understand the gender experience of a sample of public transport users and consider their aspirations and needs into daily mobility. A survey campaign (structured interviews and online questionnaires) was launched in the Dammam Metropolitan Region (DMR), taking four different types of respondents into account. The results suggest a predominant preference for taxis for shopping and leisure activities due to a poor public transport service, pivotally characterized by limited operational routes, hours, and infrastructure. This study ponders upon the adequacy of the supporting infrastructures and interior design of the public buses to women's needs and compare them with global best practices. The results suggest that, due to the absence of a gender-responsive design and infrastructure, women are forced to use taxis, although privacy and a sense of insecurity often become concerns when traveling alone or with children. The study results allow future research to be expanded, considering women's mobility patterns, needs, and embedded barriers by comparing the results with current transport policies, plans, and practices.

A framework that integrates qualitative and quantitative data analysis methodologies of trip-chaining behavior research was developed. The proposed qualitative methods include analysis of descriptive statistics and visual analysis of space–time prisms. The results of the qualitative analysis help in the quantitative modeling process. The proposed integrated qualitative and quantitative framework incorporates both logit models and hazard duration models as quantitative analysis tools. Qualitative examples, what was learned from them, and how the qualitative data affect the quantitative methodology are described. The qualitative examples show that aggregate and individual trip-chaining behaviors are not easy to model. Integration of the results from both qualitative and quantitative methods lead to a better understanding of how people make their trip-chaining and travel behavior decisions.

There has been a significant decline in active travel<br> and a massive increase in the use of car dependent travel in many<br> countries during the past two decades. Evidential risks for people's<br> physical and mental health problems are correlated with this<br> increased use of motorized travel. These health related problems<br> range from overweight and obesity to increased air pollution. In<br> response to these rising concerns health professionals, traffic planers,<br> local authorities and others have introduced a variety of initiatives to<br> counterbalance the dominance of cars for daily journeys.<br> However, the nature of travel behavior change interventions,<br> which aim to reduce car use, are very complex and challenging<br> regarding their interactions with human behavior. To change travel<br> behavior at least two aspects have to be taken into consideration.<br> First, how to alter att...

In the context of dealing with mobility poverty, it is relevant to consider how personal choices and (changes in) one's personal situation affect behaviour and, possibly, lead to behavioural change. A growing number of studies have explored and confirmed the impact of life events on travel behaviour. As most travel behaviour is habitual, it is a challenge to encourage people to consider other transport modes. For policy makers and transport service providers, it follows that life events or transition points can-and should-be considered as opportunities for triggering behavioural change, i.e. for promoting alternative transport options and nudging people towards using them. Life events in travel behaviour change theory: an overview Personal choices and (changes in) one's personal situation affect behaviour and may trigger behavioural change. In this chapter, we analyse how behaviour and behavioural change insights can be applied to the study of travel behaviour and travel behaviour change. First, we address a more theoretical framework and then we offer some case studies. We can start with Adjei and Behrens (Adjei et al. 2012). In their review and synthesis of travel behaviour theories and experiments, they distinguish between four types of theories, depending on which questions they seek to answer: • How behavioural choices are made (rational choice theory, prospect theory, habit formation theory, theory of interpersonal behaviour); • What factors affect decision-making (theory of planned behaviour, theory of interpersonal behaviour, norm activation theory); • When behavioural change occurs (habit formation theory, cognitive dissonance theory, stages of change model); and • How people respond to behaviour change interventions (self-perception theory, goal setting theory).

The limited availability of public transportation in Saudi Arabia leads to an increased demand for private vehicles. An increase in using private cars does not meet the global sustainability goals, e.g., reducing energy consumption and improving the air quality. Road users should be encouraged to use sustainable mobility modes, particularly public transportation, equally accessible to both men and women However, women’s mobility has been somewhat limited and challenged in spatio-temporal terms, and partly due to socio-cultural barriers. This study attempts to understand the gender experience of a sample of public transport users and consider their aspirations and needs into daily mobility. A survey campaign (structured interviews and online questionnaires) was launched in the Dammam Metropolitan Region (DMR), taking four different types of respondents into account. The results suggest a predominant preference for taxis for shopping and leisure activities due to a poor public transpo...

A framework that integrates qualitative and quantitative data analysis methodologies of trip-chaining behavior research was developed. The proposed qualitative methods include analysis of descriptive statistics and visual analysis of space–time prisms. The results of the qualitative analysis help in the quantitative modeling process. The proposed integrated qualitative and quantitative framework incorporates both logit models and hazard duration models as quantitative analysis tools. Qualitative examples, what was learned from them, and how the qualitative data affect the quantitative methodology are described. The qualitative examples show that aggregate and individual trip-chaining behaviors are not easy to model. Integration of the results from both qualitative and quantitative methods lead to a better understanding of how people make their trip-chaining and travel behavior decisions.

A framework that integrates qualitative and quantitative data analysis methodologies of trip-chaining behavior research was developed. The proposed qualitative methods include analysis of descriptive statistics and visual analysis of space–time prisms. The results of the qualitative analysis help in the quantitative modeling process. The proposed integrated qualitative and quantitative framework incorporates both logit models and hazard duration models as quantitative analysis tools. Qualitative examples, what was learned from them, and how the qualitative data affect the quantitative methodology are described. The qualitative examples show that aggregate and individual trip-chaining behaviors are not easy to model. Integration of the results from both qualitative and quantitative methods lead to a better understanding of how people make their trip-chaining and travel behavior decisions.

I felt humiliated-I had the impression that, as a woman with two inconvenient children and some inconvenient luggage [a pram], I was barely tolerated on that bus system. Obviously two factors influenced my feelings there-the attitude of the driver and the design of the bus, neither of which made allowance for my-not-extraordinary-needs." (Wright 1994:33) "...the physical environment both reflects and conditions the wellbeing of children and gives children a very clear message about how they are valued (or not) within their community." (Woolcock & Steele 2008:5) Notions of public good and community obligations underpin public transport provision and are based on principles of equal citizenship and people's individual rights.

Since the large majority of households have access to one or more cars in the developed world, encouraging multimodal travel behaviours has become a goal for many cities. Multimodality refers to the use of more than one transport mode within a given period of time. While correlates of multimodality have been identified from cross-sectional data, there is very little known about the circumstances over time in which individuals become more or less multimodal. This paper is the first to fully adopt the mobility biography approach to study changes in multimodality over time at the individual level. Multimodality is measured using four continuous indicators of mode use in a seven-day period: the share in trips made by the most commonly used mode (primary mode), the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index, Shannon's entropy, and the number of modes used. The paper uses the German Mobility Panel (GMP) for the period 1994 to 2012. The results demonstrate that some of the life course events studied are significantly associated with changes in multimodality. Specifically, a child moving out of the household increases the multimodality of parents. Leaving the labour market increases multimodality, while entering the labour market conversely reduces multimodality. Changes in car access and driver licence holding have significant effects as well. An improvement to the public transport system in the neighbourhood increases multimodality, and vice versa. Reduced parking space availability also increases multimodality. The latter two findings endorse 'carrot and stick' transport policies as means of creating a more balanced use of transport modes.

We propose a model and procedure for the implementation and transition phase to a Mobile Wireless Technology (MWT) enabled work environment. The study is based on the practical experiences of executives solicited through a series of interviews and questionnaires. The corporations represented consisted of a hospital, a university, a small SME, and a large media group. Four basic components appear to permeate the mobilisation concept when coupled with MWT. Namely, the ability to enable flexible working environments, work on demand, further integration of work and non-work activity at any given time, and multiple methods for achieving the working function. Based on empirical evidence a seven stage model for the implementation of the "mobilised" worker is then proposed. The implementation steps require a notable/knowledgeable awareness of MWT, followed by an analysis of opportunities for application eventually leading on to the evaluation of the most promising opportunities. Next is an analysis of and validation of models for workforce mobilisation and a business plan. Finally the development of the supporting infrastructure is followed by the roll-out, promotion and propagation. Two of the corporations already have some MWT infrastructure. The multimedia corporation has mobilised the photographers and sports reporters leading to immediate notable benefits in work turnaround and office space reduction. The university is investing in MWT primarily for the students, with a large number of wireless zones placed at strategic locations. Our research has show that there is cautious optimism for the proposed model as well as the implementation procedures, although some the latter was only discussed at the hypothetical level. We note that there has been an overall positive reaction to MWT implementations, both from the user point of view and the management team. This positive attitude has encouraged the corporations to look further a field for other areas of implementation.

Smartcard and other forms of electronic ticketing have become integral to modern public transport systems. While aggregate ridership figures have generally been positive, little is known about the drivers behind these changes because of a lack of travel information on individuals before and after implementation of such systems. This working paper presents analysis from a naturalistic travel behaviour study of inner-city Sydney residents that coincided with the phased introduction of the Opal smartcard system. Using a differences-indifferences methodology, results indicate significant reductions in car use of around 10 minutes/day with commensurate increases in train use and incidental walking. This trend holds across income groups and is more pronounced for older residents. Results add further weight to the merits of simplifying ticket purchasing as part of a package of policy measures designed to increase public transport usage.

Life events, such as the birth of a child, disrupt habitual travel behaviour and provide a valuable opportunity to influence the adoption of sustainable transport practices. However, in order for sustainable travel practices to be adopted, an understanding is required of the factors that influence travel mode choice among families with young children. Research in this field is particularly timely given many in the millennial generation, a comparably large cohort, are approaching this life stage. This comprehensive literature review develops a framework of factors influencing travel mode choice among families with young children. The findings reveal a multitude of factors influence decisions about mode choice, and, in particular, encourage travel by car, when travelling with young children. The paper concludes with an agenda for future research about travel among families with young children, a largely overlooked group of transport users.

Obesity, greenhouse gas emissions, and oil dependence are major concerns of sustainability in Australian socie ty 1. One factor is the increasing share of private vehicle using contributes to these problems. Another factor is suburban development, widely criticized for its contribution to longer average trip lengths and excessive dependence on private vehicles at the expense of public transport and non-motorized modes.

Transportation Demand Management (TDM, also called Mobility Management) is a general term for strategies that result in more efficient use of transportation resources. Voluntary TDM measures, such as the introduction of flexi time, ride sharing etc, if implemented and followed, should spread peak traffic over a longer period and improve the levels of service and reduce the negative impact of private vehicle travel on the environment. This paper analyses the potential benefits of the introduction of Voluntary TDM measures on a specific commuter route (Cape Road) in Port Elizabeth. The potential benefits were analysed in terms of time savings, cost savings, energy efficiency effects and a reduction in CO2 emissions. Microscopic modelling of specific work journeys on this route was carried out, comparing peak travel with off peak travel.