Unmarked Burials

With its two rows of purple shells woven on a white background, the Teiohá:te (Two Row Wampum) symbolizes a river on which the original peoples’ canoe and the settlers’ ship travel side by side. Preserving the memory of an alliance made between the Rotinonhsión:ni (Iroquois) and the first Dutch settlers, its parallel lines suggest that for both communities to move in the same direction, they must refrain from veering into each other’s path. My dissertation explores this paradoxical conception of “alliance-through-separation” by way of participatory fieldwork with Elders and knowledge carriers from the Kanien'kehá:ka (Mohawk) community of Kahnawà:ke, including a group of women, the Ka’nisténhsera, whom I accompanied in a legal saga that resulted in a search for unmarked graves being launched at a former hospital in Montreal. Adopting a “vectorial” approach consistent with the Teiohá:te’s emphasis on directionality, I address the relationships between the Rotinonhsión:ni tradition and three sets of records: anthropological, legal, and archival. Whereas vectorial thinking challenges anthropology’s traditional “genetic” focus on authenticating the “origins” of Rotinonhsión:ni traditions, including the Teiohá:te itself, the Ka’nisténhsera’s experience enforcing their traditional duties as caretakers of the land and children in court provided insight into the wampum’s application in Canadian courts. The dissertation analyzes the role played by Rotinonhsión:ni concepts in the Ka’nisténhsera’s self-representation in court, which led them to obtain an injunction halting construction and implementing an archaeological search at the hospital site. Finally, I share the results from a collaborative archival research project including the Ka’nisténhsera and non-Indigenous Survivors of psychiatric experiments to understand mental hygiene programs and cultural assimilation during the Cold War. In so doing, the Teiohá:te appears as a pathway for cross-cultural alliance and mutual healing by way of recreating severed kinship ties

The identification of unmarked graves and burials is one of most common applications of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) in archaeology. Despite a high frequency of use and a long history of experimentation, there appears to be considerable variability on what indicates a burial in GPR data-likely a consequence of heterogeneity in geological contexts, age and in burial practices. Although general statements about uncertainty in GPR interpretation may be acceptable in archaeological applications, the interpretative process becomes more complicated when GPR is used to locate unmarked graves in culturally, politically and legally contested locations such as at former Indian Residential Schools (IRSs) in Canada. In this paper, we review international applications of the technique and identify trends and traits between the authors' use of GPR to identify burials. By categorizing the studies based on the GPR

Part of Canadian history that is now being addressed is the legacy of Indian residential schools (IRSs) and closely related institutions. For most of their 200-year-plus history, these were run by various churches or religious organizations, and many were directly funded (and eventually run) by government. Attendance by Indigenous children at these schools was made compulsory, and children were deliberately taken far from their cultural base, native language and family in the name of cultural assimilation. Abundant and longstanding evidence has documented abuse, neglect and high rates of death at the schools. Most or all schools had cemeteries, many of which have fallen into neglect and/or been lost through time. Documenting the numbers, names and burial locations of students who died at the schools has become a national priority. Since 2021, interest in this work has accelerated, due in large part by media announcements of geophysical findings of potential unmarked graves at various school sites. Geophysical surveys for unmarked graves are planned or underway at a large number of school sites nationwide. Related lines of research are seeking to document the extent and nature of student deaths based on archival records, survivor accounts and other lines of evidence. As suggested by government and demanded by Indigenous communities, these searches are being led by the affected communities. This paper represents a snapshot of elements of the work in progress, based in part on the personal participation of the author in multiple IRS searches and resulting direct involvement with local communities. Included in this contribution are a historic context, broad overview of community participation/leadership and suggested refinements to geophysical survey best practices that have been promulgated by the Canadian archaeological community and other nationwide organizations.

Few enslaved burial grounds have been identified throughout the Caribbean, notably on the southeasterly island of Barbados, which was home to one of the densest populations of enslaved peoples from its official settlement in 1627 to Emancipation in 1834. In this paper, we present archival, oral historical, and geophysical data evidencing a burial ground for enslaved and free Barbadians at Holy Cross Church, located on Society Plantation. Situated on the grounds of Christopher Codrington's seventeenth-century estate, which was later gifted to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, this burial ground, and its associated archival record, sheds light on proselytization efforts and burial practices on the island shortly before and after Emancipation. We present evidence of the location of burial grounds for Afro-Barbadians who chose the Christian rite of burial. We then offer alternatives to excavation that can properly honor and respect the individuals interred at the site.

Geophysical survey has become a major tool in the search for clandestine graves associated with missing person cases. However, relatively little research has been done to evaluate the efficacy of different instruments. Ground-penetrating Radar (GPR), magnetometry, resistivity, conductivity, and susceptibility survey data were collected over the first six months of interment at approximately 30-day intervals for two research plots: an open grassy area and a wooded area. Each area contained five pig burials representing toddler-size (less than 50 pounds) remains and two areas of disturbance or false burials to serve as control graves. The resultant imagery was evaluated in terms of relative utility in burial detection. In general, geophysical survey method results were not very effective in the detection of toddler-sized burials. Under the conditions that this research was conducted, the GPR would have had the maximum potential to provide the best survey results, but this was not the case. The GPR results were only marginally better than the other methods after processing with additional filters. The other methods utilized in this research would be of no benefit in delineating toddler-sized clandestine burials under the conditions that this research was conducted. This is most likely due to the small target size, soil type, and the soil moisture. iii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my children, Ronnie and McKenzie Leanne. They have become my inspiration and provide hope...

The American press is silent. Catholic church denies tribal authorities documents to help identify the remains. Despite Biden's famous and recent “apology” for the abhorrence of the Indian residential school system, practiced in the United States and Canada for more than 100 years, omertà descends over the recent discovery of the wretched remains of 38 Native children at the grounds of the former Immaculate Conception Mission Catholic Indian Residential School on the Crow Creek Reservation in South Dakota. The news, as of the past few days, has only popped up in three newspapers: the Arizona Daily Star, the Rapid City Journal and the Indian Country News, as if the apology had washed and whitened consciences, creating an imperishable absolution from all sins committed against Native Americans.

La stampa americana tace. La chiesa cattolica nega alle autorità tribali i documenti per aiutare a riconoscere le salme. Nonostante le famose e recenti "scuse" di Biden per l'obbrobrio del sistema delle scuole residenziali indiane, praticato negli Stati Uniti e in Canada per oltre 100 anni, l'omertà cala sul recente ritrovamento dei miseri resti di 38 bambini nativi presso i terreni della ex scuola residenziale indiana Immaculate Conception Mission Catholic, nella Crow Creek Reservation, in Sud Dakota. La notizia, dai giorni scorsi, ha fatto capolino solo in tre giornali: l'Arizona Daily Star, il Rapid City Journal e l'Indian Country News, come se le scuse avessero lavato e sbiancato le coscienze, creando una assoluzione imperitura da tutti i peccati commessi contro i Nativi Americani.

This article draws on participant observation in a legal battle at the Quebec Superior Court in 2022, where the Kanien’kehá:ka Kahnistensera (Mohawk Mothers) sought an injunction to halt excavation work around a hospital where Indigenous victims of medical experiments were allegedly buried. In response to a motion from the government of Quebec, the Mohawk Mothers refused to use a lawyer who would obey colonial law, arguing that it was their traditional duty as caretakers of the territory to speak for themselves and for their community without legal representation. This article examines their fight for self-determination through their specific understanding of the relationship between individual autonomy and social responsibility, notably by way of the Kanien’kehá:ka’s use of a single word to denote assemblies, fires, and families: Kahwá:tsire’. To reach a consensus, when it seems that everyone has come to an agreement, the Kanien’kehá:ka council must “stir the ashes” and ask everyone who has not spoken yet to voice their opinion and bring their unique perspective in the balance. As a result of this method, the author suggests that the Kanien’kehá:ka simultaneously take on the roles of legislators, executors, and judges all at once.

The Old Methodist Cemetery on the SE corner of Washington St and Hooper Ave. were scanned with a Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) in the spring of 2022. This consisted of preliminary 2D scans as well as a concentrated 3D scan. 2D Scan The 2D scan was a preliminary test of the area. These scans show that the existence of unmarked burials may exist. These marked hyperbolas do not have a corresponding grave marker. Scans of the parking area to the east of the cemetery showed no potential burials. This parking area was once part of the Old Methodist Cemetery as shown on 19 th century survey maps. 3D Scan The 3D scan focused on the SW corner of the cemetery. This scan was done to locate any remaining evidence of the chapel that once stood in the cemetery from 1828 until the 1850's. Scans show potential for evidence of the chapel. At about 1.5ft deep there is a anomaly present. It travels from the cemetery boundary to the east for about 24ft. While this fits with older Christian churches/chapels having a somewhat West-East orientation, this is not always the case in 19 th century United States.

The identification of unmarked graves and burials is one of most common applications of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) in archaeology. Despite a high frequency of use and a long history of experimentation, there appears to be considerable variability on what indicates a burial in GPR data-likely a consequence of heterogeneity in geological contexts, age and in burial practices. Although general statements about uncertainty in GPR interpretation may be acceptable in archaeological applications,

The use of fire plays a vital role in studies involving human adaptation and evolution as well as landscape and environmental management, especially when it can answer questions about people's movement across space, their resource availability and occupation (e.g., intensity and duration). The Australian landscape contains numerous combustion features making it particularly challenging to understand fire use, primarily due to erosional systems impacting in-situ deposits. Although they are one of the most easily recognizable features of past Aboriginal occupation, their preservation is a complex issue created by exposure through erosional processes in the form of wind and rain. This has added difficulties to developing interpretation surrounding how they reflect occupational intensity and understanding their use. The purpose of this case study is to explore several combustion sites to understand their geomagnetic signatures in relation to their environmental setting and how these vary based on erosional processes and geomorphology. Using magnetic gradiometry, we mapped six combustion sites in the Channel Country of far southwestern Queensland, an arid central desert landscape characterized by low gradient fluvial and aeolian sedimentation (e.g., sand dunes). Results indicate that many of the geophysical signatures were largely dependent on the site's geomorphological history but that there was a strong potential for intact combustion features. This has important implications for cultural heritage management and our research partners, the Mithaka Aboriginal Corporation, who seek ways to monitor sites affected by erosion and ground-test sites where information about past land use can be studied.

We have used the 2D Vertical Electrical Sounding method and Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) method to map buried artifacts in a simulated settlement, and have shown how the geographical information system could aid future research. Stones, bones, metals, cement bricks, and cement-and-sand mixtures were locally constructed to fit into an African-archaeological setting. Parameters such as the materials' composition, width, electrical resistivity, height, age, and depth of burial were taken into account before this investigation. The integrated methods employed collected data over the study area along with a pre-calculated dense network of parallel profiles. A total of eight (8) VES points and six (6) ERT profiles were obtained. The analysis and interpretation revealed that the VES yielded poor resolution for small-scale archaeological anomalies and could only be used fractionally for prospection whilst the ERT results were more suitable for delineation due to the high spatial resolution they provided. The field values correlated with other literature values. This research suggests that rapid significant prospection information, of any area under investigation, can easily be obtained from Google Earth time-lapse images and that its results will serve as a thorough reconnaissance in the search of prehistoric activities.

The Spanish Influenza of 1919 had a devastating effect on Aboriginal Australian communities, particularly Cherbourg (formerly known as Barambah Aboriginal Reserve), which resulted in a loss of ~15% of their population. Deaths happened so quickly that coffins were not built and, in some cases, trenches or mass graves were used to inter the dead in addition to individual graves. Although the trench locations were formally unknown by the Cherbourg community today, a major concern of the Cherbourg Elders is that they wanted to memorialise those affected by the 1919 pandemic, especially 100 years later. One attempt to locate the mass graves was to apply geophysical methods in the New and Old Cherbourg cemeteries to detect these unmarked burials. Our paper demonstrates how ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and magnetic gradiometry were used along with oral histories and Indigenous knowledge to detect three mass graves associated with the Spanish Influenza. Outcomes such as this play an important role is supporting 'Truth Telling' for the Cherbourg Aboriginal community.

A geophysical investigation for buried human remains after 8 years of burial involving the use of Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) was carried out at Owo, Ondo State, Southwestern Nigeria. This study was aimed at identifying the burial location of a corpse buried in a coffin about 8 years ago for exhumation and reburial in another location consequent upon litigations and controversies surrounding the land of the burial. The results obtained were used to generate 2D model and different resistivity maps which were able to identify suspected zone. Excavation of the suspected zone was carried out for the exhumed and relocation of the buried human remains. Electrical Resistivity has therefore been found useful in search for detecting human remains buried in a coffin with the key indicator being lower electrical resistivity relative to the surrounding area.