Village Chicken

are also excellent mothers, capable of thriving in hilly terrains with dense vegetation with their ability to evade predators (Kumar et al., 2016). These birds primarily fulfill their nutritional needs through scavenging, while farmers supplement their diet with limited household grains (Kumar et al., 2013b). Indigenous chickens possess strong brooding instincts, making them ideal for natural incubation and chick rearing (Kumar et al., 2013c). Utilizing broody hens for incubation and brooding is a practical, cost-effective approach for rural farmers (Shimmura et al., 2015). Although farmers follow supplementary feeding and watering practices for indigenous chickens and have long relied on natural incubation methods to produce chicks, there is a lack of scientific documentation on these practices. The present study was aimed at addressing this paucity of information.

A social strategy was tested for implementing Newcastle disease (ND) vaccination and biosecurity improvements among free-ranging chicken at village level in Tanzania. In addition to training the local poultry vaccinators, data recorders and poultrykeepers, the strategy involved training and empowering leaders at the district, ward and village level. The trainings covered poultry health, management, and marketing of village chickens, with an emphasis on ND vaccination and improving biosecurity against avian influenza (AI), The study sites included villages in one ward in each of three each three districts (Iringa, Mtwara-Mikindani, and Mvomero) of mainland Tanzania. Ninety-six local leaders at district level and 101 leaders at ward levels were trained. In addition, 196 farmers (households) were trained, as well as 86 vaccinators and 26 data recorders. Data recorders were also trained as poultry first aid workers. ND vaccination was conducted by the vaccinators, supervised by their local leaders with technical assistance from veterinarians. A total of 158,343 village chickens were vaccinated in three rounds of vaccination three months apart. The training and empowerment of local leaders and local implementers was the key element for success as it fostered the feeling of local ownership of the program and prevented conflicts with other development activities within the villages. We conclude that most animal health programs will increase their odds of success by involving local leaders and by addressing the current challenges facing the

Improvement in animal disease control and prevention is dependent on several factors including farmers' uptake of new technologies and skills, particularly in developing countries. Extension is the means by which information about these technologies and skills is delivered to farmers, in order that they can use this knowledge to improve farming practices and their quality of life. This implies a shift from traditional methods to new science-based methods of production. However, in many developing countries farmers are illiterate and unable to understand written outcomes of scientific research. This paper summarizes approaches to communicate epidemiological findings and reports on experiences obtained from a research project in Myanmar, where results from epidemiological field investigations and intervention studies were 'translated' in an understandable manner to village communities. Rural chicken farmers were the central focus of this extension work and simple and susta...

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Assessment of production and productivity of village chicken were conducted in two agro ecology (midland, highland) and eight rural kebeles (RKs), households were participated in the survey. The study revealed that the primary aim of chicken rearing is for sale of live chicken (31.81%) followed by for incubation (30.7%). the overall village chicken flock size was 3.81±0.18 per household. The major supplement feed for chicken was wheat grain (59.2 %) followed by food leftover (25.8%). About 70.8% of the respondents give more supplements to layers followed by chicks (10.8%). Hens/layers got the priority highest attention because farmers believe that supplemented hens lay more eggs. About 53.3% of the households shared the same room followed by a separately constructed houses (33.3%) and separate quarter in the same roof for family (13.3%). The Parameters used for selecting breeding village chicken were plumage colors (30%), body weight (27.5%), comp type (23.3%), breed type (12.5%), and comp shape (6.7%), in that order. The major diseases reported in the study area was Newcastle disease (85 %) and 15% other diseases including Coccidosis, Fowl pox and Fowl typhoid. generally exotic breeds seems to perform better than indigenous and there is a need for improvement in productivity of the cross breeds and indigenous breeds.

The efficacy of treated broken millet grains as a carrier for delivery of thermostable Newcastle disease (ND) vaccine HRV4 to free-range chickens in three locations was assessed by haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test and challenge experiment. Out of 256 birds fed with first dose of the vaccine, 130 (50.8%) produced detectable HI antibody but only 16 (6.3%) attained serum antibody level of log2
3.0 adjudged protective. From the locations, Igumale (74 birds), Kuru (88 birds) Riyom (94 birds), only 1 (1.4%), 8 (9.1%) and 7 (7.4%) attained log2 titre
3.0, respectively. A booster vaccine dose 2 weeks later on 236 of the birds led to 126 (53.4%) attaining HI (log2) titre
3.0 [Igumale (63 birds), Kuru (86 birds) Riyom (87 birds) had 33 (53.5%), 46 (53.5%) and 42 (48.3%) respectively attaining log2 titres of
3.0]. Out of a total of 70 buy-back chickens challenged, 49 (70.0%) survived. The break down showed that from Igumale (20 birds), Kuru (25 birds) Riyom (25 birds), the surviv...

Institutional barriers can hinder effective access and utilisation of Newcastle disease vaccines among smallholder chicken farmers. Many studies have focused on formal institutional barriers with minimal focus on informal institutions-unwritten rules and regulations that govern access and utilisation of Newcastle vaccines. However, informal institutions are more profound and encultured in individuals' daily activities. This study sought to investigate informal institutional barriers to access and utilisation of Newcastle disease vaccines among women smallholder chicken farmers in Makueni, Kenya. The cross-sectional qualitative study employed in-depth interviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions as data collection methods. Study informants were conveniently and purposively sampled. Informal institutional barriers to access and utilisation included: fear of Newcastle disease vaccine as a new technology, use of herbal remedies, mistrust of community vaccinators, gender division of labour, ownership of household resources and beliefs that indigenous chickens do not need vaccines. The study concludes that women chicken farmers are constrained by unwritten rules, norms, regulations and gender roles that hinder their access to and utilisation of the Newcastle disease vaccines. The need to examine informal institutions to identify and eradicate barriers to access and utilisation of Newcastle disease vaccines by farmers is recommended.

The current study was carried out with the main aim to define the morphology of muscle and to evaluate the meat characteristic of Red Jungle Fowl and Malaysian Village chicken which are known to have slow growth rates and an attempt was made to compare with the commercial broiler chicken which is known to have a fast growth rate. To our knowledge there is no data documented on the carcass composition of the Red Jungle Fowl and Village Chicken muscle at different ages. A total of 150 chickens from three different breeds were used in this study, they were Red Jungle Fowl (RJ), Malaysian Village Chicken (VC) and Commercial Broiler (CB) with 50 chickens for each breed. The eggs of RJ and VC were collected from Jenderam Hulu, Sepang, Selangor, hatched in the incubator and reared in the experimental house. The CB were collected from the CP (M) Private Limited hatchery in Kuala Kangsar, Perak as Day 1 chicks and reared in the same experimental house. All the chickens were given starter (20...

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Newcastle Disease (ND) is regarded as one of the major diseases of poultry because of the devastating losses that the virulent form of the virus can impose on both commercial and village chicken. However, the disease can be controlled through the administration of effective vaccines. Almost all the commercially available vaccines require refrigeration and begin to deteriorate rapidly after 1-2 hours if left at room temperature (around 25°C). Subsequently, because maintaining an adequate supply of refrigerated facilities may be a difficult task in many developing countries with unreliable electrical supplies, the development and large scale production and utilization of an effective thermo-stable Newcastle disease vaccine seems imperative to support rural poultry industry. Participatory/action research on vaccination of village poultry against Newcastle disease (ND) was carried out in two selected villages of Bullie district of Gedio zone, southern Ethiopia; with an objective to demonstrate community based thermo-stable ND vaccination scheme and thereby; to increase the population of chicken in backyard production system. We have selected four community vaccinators, two per each village and trained on diagnosis of major poultry diseases, with the major emphasis on Newcastle disease, on preparation, handling and administration of thermo-sable ND vaccine. From the two villages, we have vaccinated 362 chicken of all age ranges of 54 households, in the two rounds. For the vaccination we have selected a site which is suitable for household members to bring their chicken for vaccine administration. We used eye drop technique to administer a vaccine, by preparing one eye drop in one dose base for all age groups. We administered a vaccine before a pick prevalence of Newcastle disease in the study area, for the remaining three months, data was collected on the mortality rate of the chicken. The result shows that, of the total vaccinated chicken (362) from the two villages on the two rounds, 51 chicken were dead due to diseases, of the cases with a clinical sign not related with Newcastle disease. The total mortality rate of 14%, in this study shows that, thermo-stable Newcastle disease vaccine applied via eye drop is the most effective method for control Newcastle disease in village chicken. Therefore; with proper use of vaccine and vaccination programs using well trained community vaccinators, we can reduce village chicken mortality highly to enhance productivity of rural community at large.

The efficacy of treated broken millet grains as a carrier for delivery of thermostable Newcastle disease (ND) vaccine HRV 4 to free-range chickens in three locations was assessed by haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test and challenge experiment. Out of 256 birds fed with first dose of the vaccine, 130 (50.8%) produced detectable HI antibody but only 16 (6.3%) attained serum antibody level of log 2 3.0 adjudged protective. From the locations, Igumale (74 birds), Kuru (88 birds) Riyom (94 birds), only 1 (1.4%), 8 (9.1%) and 7 (7.4%) attained log 2 titre 3.0, respectively. A booster vaccine dose 2 weeks later on 236 of the birds led to 126 (53.4%) attaining HI (log 2) titre 3.0 [Igumale (63 birds), Kuru (86 birds) Riyom (87 birds) had 33 (53.5%), 46 (53.5%) and 42 (48.3%) respectively attaining log 2 titres of 3.0]. Out of a total of 70 buy-back chickens challenged, 49 (70.0%) survived. The break down showed that from Igumale (20 birds), Kuru (25 birds) Riyom (25 birds), the survivors were 13 (65.0%), 19 (76.0%) and 17 (68.0%), respectively. Out of 28 unvaccinated control birds challenged, only 4 survived. The overall results showed that millet, if properly treated, could be a good vaccine carrier and that the method of vaccination was relatively efficacious.

Newcastle disease (ND) is a viral disease of poultry with global importance, responsible for the loss of a potential source of household nutrition and economic livelihood in many low-income food-deficit countries. Periodic outbreaks of this endemic disease result in high mortality amongst free-ranging chicken flocks and may serve as a disincentive for rural households to invest time or resources in poultry-keeping. Sustainable ND control can be achieved through vaccination using a thermotolerant vaccine administered via eyedrop by trained "community vaccinators". This article evaluates the uptake and outcomes of fee-for-service ND vaccination programs in eight rural villages in the semi-arid central zone of Tanzania. It represents part of an interdisciplinary program seeking to address chronic undernutrition in children through improvements to existing poultry and crop systems. Newcastle disease vaccination uptake was found to vary substantially across communities and seas...

The Australian strains of avirulent, thermostable Newcastle disease virus designated NDV4-HR and I-2 were tested in the laboratory and under field conditions in Mozambique. An overview of this work is presented. Under experimental conditions, both vaccine strains provided protection to all vaccinated birds and those in contact with them against a local virulent strain of ND virus, V868. Field trials confirmed these results. In addition, it was shown that vaccine administered by eye-drop gave better results than vaccine administered in the drinking water or by oral drench. There were no adverse reactions to the vaccines and it was concluded that NDV4-HR and I-2 strains are avirulent, innocuous, efficacious, immunogenic and suitable for use in the control of ND in Mozambique. Factors contributing to the successful implementation of the field trials are also discussed.

Newcastle disease (ND) is a viral disease of poultry with global importance, responsible for the loss of a potential source of household nutrition and economic livelihood in many low-income food-deficit countries. Periodic outbreaks of this endemic disease result in high mortality amongst free-ranging chicken flocks and may serve as a disincentive for rural households to invest time or resources in poultry-keeping. Sustainable ND control can be achieved through vaccination using a thermotolerant vaccine administered via eyedrop by trained "community vaccinators". This article evaluates the uptake and outcomes of fee-for-service ND vaccination programs in eight rural villages in the semi-arid central zone of Tanzania. It represents part of an interdisciplinary program seeking to address chronic undernutrition in children through improvements to existing poultry and crop systems. Newcastle disease vaccination uptake was found to vary substantially across communities and seas...

This manual is in 9 sections. Topics covered are: importance of Newcastle disease in village chickens in developing countries; characteristics of Newcastle disease; collection and submission of samples for the diagnosis of Newcastle disease; control of Newcastle ...

Newcastle disease (ND) is a viral disease of poultry with global importance, responsible for the loss of a potential source of household nutrition and economic livelihood in many low-income food-deficit countries. Periodic outbreaks of this endemic disease result in high mortality amongst free-ranging chicken flocks and may serve as a disincentive for rural households to invest time or resources in poultry-keeping. Sustainable ND control can be achieved through vaccination using a thermotolerant vaccine administered via eyedrop by trained "community vaccinators". This article evaluates the uptake and outcomes of fee-for-service ND vaccination programs in eight rural villages in the semi-arid central zone of Tanzania. It represents part of an interdisciplinary program seeking to address chronic undernutrition in children through improvements to existing poultry and crop systems. Newcastle disease vaccination uptake was found to vary substantially across communities and seas...

A social strategy was tested for implementing Newcastle disease (ND) vaccination and biosecurity improvements among free-ranging chicken at village level in Tanzania. In addition to training the local poultry vaccinators, data recorders and poultrykeepers, the strategy involved training and empowering leaders at the district, ward and village level. The trainings covered poultry health, management, and marketing of village chickens, with an emphasis on ND vaccination and improving biosecurity against avian influenza (AI), The study sites included villages in one ward in each of three each three districts (Iringa, Mtwara-Mikindani, and Mvomero) of mainland Tanzania. Ninety-six local leaders at district level and 101 leaders at ward levels were trained. In addition, 196 farmers (households) were trained, as well as 86 vaccinators and 26 data recorders. Data recorders were also trained as poultry first aid workers. ND vaccination was conducted by the vaccinators, supervised by their local leaders with technical assistance from veterinarians. A total of 158,343 village chickens were vaccinated in three rounds of vaccination three months apart. The training and empowerment of local leaders and local implementers was the key element for success as it fostered the feeling of local ownership of the program and prevented conflicts with other development activities within the villages. We conclude that most animal health programs will increase their odds of success by involving local leaders and by addressing the current challenges facing the

A social strategy was tested for implementing Newcastle disease (ND) vaccination and biosecurity improvements among free-ranging chicken at village level in Tanzania. In addition to training the local poultry vaccinators, data recorders and poultry-keepers, the strategy involved training and empowering leaders at the district, ward and village level. The trainings covered poultry health, management, and marketing of village chickens, with an emphasis on ND vaccination and improving biosecurity against avian influenza (AI), The study sites included villages in one ward in each of three each three districts (Iringa, Mtwara-Mikindani, and Mvomero) of mainland Tanzania. Ninety-six local leaders at district level and 101 leaders at ward levels were trained. In addition, 196 farmers (households) were trained, as well as 86 vaccinators and 26 data recorders. Data recorders were also trained as poultry first aid workers. ND vaccination was conducted by the vaccinators, supervised by their local leaders with technical assistance from veterinarians. A total of 158,343 village chickens were vaccinated in three rounds of vaccination three months apart. The training and empowerment of local leaders and local implementers was the key element for success as it fostered the feeling of local ownership of the program and prevented conflicts with other development activities within the villages. We conclude that most animal health programs will increase their odds of success by involving local leaders and by addressing the current challenges facing the farmers. Further assessment on the usefulness of this approach is needed.

In the face of an almost unprecedented threat of a global pandemic of influenza it is imperative that stockpiling of appropriate drugs and devices begin now. One vital device is an appropriate syringe for delivering vaccine. With the potential for millions to be infected and the vaccine supply severely stretched it is imperative that the syringe used to vaccinate waste as little vaccine as possible and thus allow for a maximum number of persons to be vaccinated. Our study tested seven leading candidate vaccine syringes for dosing accuracy, dose-capacity per vial, medication wastage and a battery of ergonomic features. One device, the Flu+ TM syringe, proved superior to the others in all important categories, possibly due to its low dead-space volume and its dosing accuracy. The data suggest that switching to this device from any of the others tested would provide between 2 and 19% additional vaccine doses per vial if the current 10-dose vials are used. Extrapolations from this data suggest that many thousands to millions of additional persons could be vaccinated in mass campaigns. Use of a syringe of this type, and the vaccine savings that would accrue, would likely be important in reducing morbidity and mortality in the event of a pandemic of influenza.

Newcastle disease (ND) is a viral disease of poultry with global importance, responsible for the loss of a potential source of household nutrition and economic livelihood in many low-income food-deficit countries. Periodic outbreaks of this endemic disease result in high mortality amongst free-ranging chicken flocks and may serve as a disincentive for rural households to invest time or resources in poultry-keeping. Sustainable ND control can be achieved through vaccination using a thermotolerant vaccine administered via eyedrop by trained " community vaccinators ". This article evaluates the uptake and outcomes of fee-for-service ND vaccination programs in eight rural villages in the semi-arid central zone of Tan-zania. It represents part of an interdisciplinary program seeking to address chronic undernu-trition in children through improvements to existing poultry and crop systems. Newcastle disease vaccination uptake was found to vary substantially across communities and ...

Newcastle disease (ND) is a viral disease of poultry with global importance, responsible for the loss of a potential source of household nutrition and economic livelihood in many low-income food-deficit countries. Periodic outbreaks of this endemic disease result in high mortality amongst free-ranging chicken flocks and may serve as a disincentive for rural households to invest time or resources in poultry-keeping. Sustainable ND control can be achieved through vaccination using a thermotolerant vaccine administered via eyedrop by trained "community vaccinators". This article evaluates the uptake and outcomes of fee-for-service ND vaccination programs in eight rural villages in the semi-arid central zone of Tanzania. It represents part of an interdisciplinary program seeking to address chronic undernutrition in children through improvements to existing poultry and crop systems. Newcastle disease vaccination uptake was found to vary substantially across communities and seas...

Newcastle disease (ND) is a viral disease of poultry with global importance, responsible for the loss of a potential source of household nutrition and economic livelihood in many low-income food-deficit countries. Periodic outbreaks of this endemic disease result in high mortality amongst free-ranging chicken flocks and may serve as a disincentive for rural households to invest time or resources in poultry-keeping. Sustainable ND control can be achieved through vaccination using a thermotolerant vaccine administered via eyedrop by trained " community vaccinators ". This article evaluates the uptake and outcomes of fee-for-service ND vaccination programs in eight rural villages in the semi-arid central zone of Tan-zania. It represents part of an interdisciplinary program seeking to address chronic undernu-trition in children through improvements to existing poultry and crop systems. Newcastle disease vaccination uptake was found to vary substantially across communities and ...

Samples of artesian well, shallow well, surface water, tap water, and bottled water were collected from different areas in Khartoum; these were chemically analyzed and used as diluents to vaccinate chicks against Newcastle disease. Immune response in vaccinated chicks, as measured by the hemagglutination inhibition test, was significantly better in birds which received the vaccine diluted in bottled water followed by those vaccinated using tap water. It appears that water with low turbidity and total dissolved solids were the best water for vaccine dilution. The order of preference of water source, according to this study was bottled water, tap water, shallow well water, artesian well water, and finally surface water.

Newcastle disease (ND) is considered a major constraint to village chicken production and results in significant mortality and economic loss every year. I-2 vaccine, a thermotolerant vaccine administered via eye drop, was introduced to Southern Africa in 1996 and has proven effective in controlling the disease. As ND is controlled, chicken production increases, and food security, food sovereignty and women's economic status improve. For the control of ND to be effective and sustainable a safe and potent vaccine is necessary but community vaccinators and farmers also need to be happy. This requires: (1) an enabling policy environment, support and coordination by relevant government agencies for the promotion and implementation of vaccination programs; (2) appropriate vaccine, locally produced and quality assured; (3) adequate packaging and administration technique, cold chain, distribution through local veterinary services and three timely vaccination campaigns per year; (4) effective and gender sensitive extension materials; (5) simple evaluation and monitoring systems by vaccinators and leaders, participatory rural assessment (PRA), participatory impact assessment (PIA) and surveys; (6) understanding the role of chickens in the farmers' livelihood strategy; (7) selection of community vaccinators, community involvement, training at all levels and (8) economic sustainability for farmers, vaccinators and veterinary vaccine laboratory services. This paper analyses the reasons for the success of the ND vaccination campaigns in Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania.

In areas where the cold chain is non-existent or unreliable, Newcastle disease (ND) can be con- trolled in village chickens using thermostable ND vaccines. In order for ND control programs to be sustainable, the technical, social, cultural, administrative and economic issues such as community participation, gender sensitive extension activities, facilitating government policies, training of staff and farmers, cost recovery, and

The I-2 thermostable live Newcastle disease vaccine was successfully produced and tested at the National Veterinary Research Institute in Mozambique. Local production of the vaccine has facilitated the supply of a low-cost, thermostable ND vaccine suitable for use in the control of ND in village chickens. For the vaccine to be used successfully in the field, the development of appropriate extension material and methods for veterinarians, extension workers and farmers was essential. All accompanying materials have been written in Portuguese with translation into local languages occurring in the field. The characteristics of the I-2 vaccine were defined to provide answers to the practical 'how to' questions posed by users in the field. THE I-2 Newcastle disease (ND) vaccine produced at INIVE performed well in laboratory and field trials (these trials are described elsewhere in these Proceedings). The seed vaccine was supplied by the Department of Veterinary Pathology of The University of Queensland, Australia. It was essential that the characteristics and performance of the vaccine be well understood to facilitate the development of an appropriate extension package to enable the vaccine to be used effectively.

EXPERIENCES IN THE CONTROL OF NEWCASTLE DISEASE IN MOZAMBIQUE. Activities associated with the investigation of Newcastle disease (ND) control in rural chickens in Mozambique are reviewed. The importance of collaboration with all stakeholders is emphasised, as is the collection of secondary documentation. Laboratory and field trials with thermostable ND are discussed. The development of appropriate extension packages, the role of community vaccinators and community livestock workers and establishment of cost-recovery procedures are outlined.

STRATEGIES FOR VACCINATION OF FAMILY POULTRY AGAINST NEWCASTLE DISEASE IN AFRICA. Criteria for the selection of vaccines against Newcastle disease (ND) appropriate for use in village chickens are discussed. Emphasis is given to the need to ensure that the selected vaccine is used successfully in the field. Those implementing ND control activities are encouraged to collaborate with all stakeholders and to develop comprehensive training and extension programs for field workers and farmers. Issues of cost-recovery and cost-minimisation are also discussed.

Newcastle disease (ND) is considered a major constraint to village chicken production and results in significant mortality and economic loss every year. I-2 vaccine, a thermotolerant vaccine administered via eye drop, was introduced to Southern Africa in 1996 and has proven effective in controlling the disease. As ND is controlled, chicken production increases, and food security, food sovereignty and women's economic status improve. For the control of ND to be effective and sustainable a safe and potent vaccine is necessary but community vaccinators and farmers also need to be happy. This requires: (1) an enabling policy environment, support and coordination by relevant government agencies for the promotion and implementation of vaccination programs; (2) appropriate vaccine, locally produced and quality assured; (3) adequate packaging and administration technique, cold chain, distribution through local veterinary services and three timely vaccination campaigns per year; (4) effective and gender sensitive extension materials; (5) simple evaluation and monitoring systems by vaccinators and leaders, participatory rural assessment (PRA), participatory impact assessment (PIA) and surveys; (6) understanding the role of chickens in the farmers' livelihood strategy; (7) selection of community vaccinators, community involvement, training at all levels and (8) economic sustainability for farmers, vaccinators and veterinary vaccine laboratory services. This paper analyses the reasons for the success of the ND vaccination campaigns in Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania.

Village poultry play a vital role in many poor rural households. They provide scarce animal protein (in the form of meat and eggs) and can be sold/bartered to meet essential family needs such as medicine, clothes and school fees. They also provide manure and pest control as well as being used in traditional ceremonies. Village poultry are generally owned and managed by women and children and improving their production can provide the first step out of poverty for the rural poor.The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) has supported village poultry research in many countries since 1984. This research has had some significant outcomes including: the control of Newcastle disease (ND) using Australian derived live thermotolerant vaccines in a variety of poultry production systems in several countries; description and quantification of the scavenging feed resource base of low input/low output systems; development of gender-sensitive extension materials and me...

Newcastle disease (ND) is a viral disease of poultry with global importance, responsible for the loss of a potential source of household nutrition and economic livelihood in many low-income food-deficit countries. Periodic outbreaks of this endemic disease result in high mortality amongst free-ranging chicken flocks and may serve as a disincentive for rural households to invest time or resources in poultry-keeping. Sustainable ND control can be achieved through vaccination using a thermotolerant vaccine administered via eyedrop by trained " community vaccinators ". This article evaluates the uptake and outcomes of fee-for-service ND vaccination programs in eight rural villages in the semi-arid central zone of Tan-zania. It represents part of an interdisciplinary program seeking to address chronic undernu-trition in children through improvements to existing poultry and crop systems. Newcastle disease vaccination uptake was found to vary substantially across communities and seasons , with a significantly higher level of vaccination amongst households participating in a longitudinal study of children's growth compared with non-participating households (p = 0.009). Two multivariable model analyses were used to explore associations between vaccination and chicken numbers, allowing for clustered data and socioeconomic and cultural variation amongst the population. Results demonstrated that both (a) households that undertook ND vaccination had a significantly larger chicken flock size in the period between that vaccination campaign and the next compared with those that did not vaccinate (p = 0.018); and (b) households with larger chicken flocks at the time of vaccination were significantly more likely to participate in vaccination programs (p < 0.001). Additionally, households vaccinating in all three vaccination campaigns held over 12 months were identified to have significantly larger chicken flocks at the end of this period (p < 0.001). Opportunities to understand causality and complexity through quantitative analyses are limited, and there is a role for qualitative approaches to explore decisions made by poultry-keeping households

Celestina Zimbawe, a widow, received one rooster and three hens in June 2005. At the end of the year, she had 21 birds. Celestina and her children were delighted. Celestina also helped with the training sessions for child-headed households and continues to provide advice to four households in her local area.

Previous game-theoretic studies of vaccination behavior typically have often assumed that populations are homogeneously mixed and that individuals are fully rational. In reality, there is heterogeneity in the number of contacts per individual, and individuals tend to imitate others who appear to have adopted successful strategies. Here, we use network-based mathematical models to study the effects of both imitation behavior and contact heterogeneity on vaccination coverage and disease dynamics. We integrate contact network epidemiological models with a framework for decision-making, within which individuals make their decisions either based purely on payoff maximization or by imitating the vaccination behavior of a social contact. Simulations suggest that when the cost of vaccination is high imitation behavior may decrease vaccination coverage. However, when the cost of vaccination is small relative to that of infection, imitation behavior increases vaccination coverage, but, surprisingly, also increases the magnitude of epidemics through the clustering of nonvaccinators within the network. Thus, imitation behavior may impede the eradication of infectious diseases. Calculations that ignore behavioral clustering caused by imitation may significantly underestimate the levels of vaccination coverage required to attain herd immunity.

The Australian strains of avirulent, thermostable Newcastle disease virus designated NDV4-HR and I-2 were tested in the laboratory and under field conditions in Mozambique. An overview of this work is presented. Under experimental conditions, both vaccine strains provided protection to
all vaccinated birds and those in contact with them against a local virulent strain of ND virus, V868. Field trials confirmed these results. In addition, it was shown that vaccine administered by eye-drop gave better results than vaccine administered in the drinking water or by oral drench.
There were no adverse reactions to the vaccines and it was concluded that NDV4-HR and I-2 strains are avirulent, innocuous, efficacious, immunogenic and suitable for use in the control of ND in Mozambique. Factors contributing to the successful implementation of the field trials are also
discussed.

In areas where the cold chain is non-existent or unreliable, Newcastle disease (ND) can be controlled in village chickens using thermostable ND vaccines. In order for ND control programs to be sustainable, the technical, social, cultural, administrative and economic issues such as community
participation, gender sensitive extension activities, facilitating government policies, training of staff and farmers, cost recovery, and distribution and marketing networks must be addressed. The control activities must bring together the key stakeholders, and they must fully appreciate the complexity
of the exercise that they are about to commence to ensure that the control of ND will make an ongoing contribution to the well-being of village chicken farmers and their families. Areas that
lack a reliable cold chain are frequently characterised by a lack of infrastructure in general and limited human resource capacity. Therefore, the vaccination of chickens must be accompanied by appropriate organisational, communication and economic practices.

A social strategy was tested for implementing Newcastle disease (ND) vaccination and biosecurity improvements among free-ranging chicken at village level in Tanzania. In addition to training the local poultry vaccinators, data recorders and poultrykeepers, the strategy involved training and empowering leaders at the district, ward and village level. The trainings covered poultry health, management, and marketing of village chickens, with an emphasis on ND vaccination and improving biosecurity against avian influenza (AI), The study sites included villages in one ward in each of three each three districts (Iringa, Mtwara-Mikindani, and Mvomero) of mainland Tanzania. Ninety-six local leaders at district level and 101 leaders at ward levels were trained. In addition, 196 farmers (households) were trained, as well as 86 vaccinators and 26 data recorders. Data recorders were also trained as poultry first aid workers. ND vaccination was conducted by the vaccinators, supervised by their local leaders with technical assistance from veterinarians. A total of 158,343 village chickens were vaccinated in three rounds of vaccination three months apart. The training and empowerment of local leaders and local implementers was the key element for success as it fostered the feeling of local ownership of the program and prevented conflicts with other development activities within the villages. We conclude that most animal health programs will increase their odds of success by involving local leaders and by addressing the current challenges facing the farmers. Further assessment on the usefulness of this approach is needed.

Village chickens are an important livestock for many rural families in Myanmar and other developing countries. Village chickens are kept under free-ranging conditions, with confinement only at night. Therefore, it is likely that some deaths are not observed by farmers. We conducted a longitudinal study from November 2003 until May 2004 to describe temporal patterns of mortality of village chickens in 10 villages in Myanmar. Field veterinarians first identified the numbers of birds in all chicken-owning households in each village. We then selected 307 households randomly with stratification by flock size. Each study household was then visited once monthly at which time questionnaires were completed recording current flock structure and numbers of hatchings, mortalities, sales and birds consumed since the previous visit. In addition, sera were collected from a sample of adult birds and growers. Depending on month and age group of chicken, from 71 to 231 (out of 290-307) households had discrepancies in the counts of birds. For chicks, at least one-quarter of the households had unobserved losses of at least 5 chicks per household (maximum 66 chicks); unobserved losses were less for growers and adult chickens. The median month-specific, village-specific mortality rates per 1000 bird-days at risk (counting missing birds as deaths) ranged from 0.8 to 1.7 for adults, from 0.4 to 4.7 for growers and from 8.0 to 16.5 for chicks.

This paper describes the management practices of village poultry in Chibuto and the impact of the Newcastle disease vaccination program conducted between January 2005 and August 2008. A 51-question survey was conducted in 11 villages involved in the Newcastle disease vaccination program in Chibuto, Mozambique. The mean flock size was significantly higher in households that provided their chickens with feed (15.0) than chickens that only scavenged (8.7; P = 0.0001). The mean flock size was significantly higher in households with vaccinated chickens (16.9) than those with unvaccinated chickens (10.0; P = 0.0005). The average number of chicks hatched during the most recent brooding was significantly higher in households that fed their chickens (9.2) than chickens that only scavenge (6.9; P = 0.0335). The mean hatch rate was significantly higher in households with vaccinated chickens (0.8) than those with unvaccinated chickens (0.7; P = 0.0324). It was determined that unvaccinated chickens are approximately five times more at risk to die of Newcastle disease (odds ratio = 4.79). This study supported the efficacy of the I-2 Newcastle disease vaccine as shown by the increased average flock size and decreased incidence of chicken mortality due to Newcastle disease. The level of farmer involvement and ongoing commitment by community vaccinators suggest that the Chibuto vaccination program is likely to be sustainable in the medium- to long-term.

In areas where the cold chain is non-existent or unreliable, Newcastle disease (ND) can be controlled in village chickens using thermostable ND vaccines. In order for ND control programs to be sustainable, the technical, social, cultural, administrative and economic issues such as community participation, gender sensitive extension activities, facilitating government policies, training of staff and farmers, cost recovery, and distribution and marketing networks must be addressed. The control activities must bring together the key stakeholders, and they must fully appreciate the complexity of the exercise that they are about to commence to ensure that the control of ND will make an ongoing contribution to the well-being of village chicken farmers and their families. Areas that lack a reliable cold chain are frequently characterised by a lack of infrastructure in general and limited human resource capacity. Therefore, the vaccination of chickens must be accompanied by appropriate organisational, communication and economic practices.

This manual is the product of many years of collaboration with colleagues interested in village chicken research and development and village chicken farmers from various parts of the world. Our thanks go to all the people who have worked with us in Bhutan,

Newcastle disease (ND) is considered a major constraint to village chicken production and results in significant mortality and economic loss every year. I-2 vaccine, a thermotolerant vaccine administered via eye drop, was introduced to Southern Africa in 1996 and has proven effective in controlling the disease. As ND is controlled, chicken production increases, and food security, food sovereignty and women’s economic status improve. For the control of ND to be effective and sustainable a safe and potent vaccine is necessary but community vaccinators and farmers also need to be happy. This requires: (1) an enabling policy environment, support and coordination by relevant government agencies for the promotion and implementation of vaccination programs; (2) appropriate vaccine, locally produced and quality assured; (3) adequate packaging and administration technique, cold chain, distribution through local veterinary services and three timely vaccination campaigns per year; (4) effective and gender sensitive extension materials; (5) simple evaluation and monitoring systems by vaccinators and leaders, participatory rural assessment (PRA), participatory impact assessment (PIA) and surveys; (6) understanding the role of chickens in the farmers’ livelihood strategy; (7) selection of community vaccinators, community involvement, training at all levels and (8) economic sustainability for farmers, vaccinators and veterinary vaccine laboratory services. This paper analyses the reasons for the success of the ND vaccination campaigns in Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania.