Water Security

This Forum article reports on a meta-review of more than 19,000 published works on water security, of which less than 1 percent explicitly focus on race or ethnicity. This is deeply concerning, because it indicates that race and ethnicity—crucial factors that affect the provision of safe, reliable water—continue to be ignored in academic and policy literatures. In response to this finding the Forum calls for building intersectional water security frameworks that recognize how empirical drivers of social and environmental inequality vary both within and across groups. Intersectional frameworks of water security can retain policy focus on the key material concerns regarding access, safety, and the distribution of water-related risks. They can also explicitly incorporate issues of race and ethnicity alongside other vectors of inequality to address key, overlooked concerns of water security.

Africa is highly vulnerable to growing aridification, with more than 60% of the total area classified as arid, supporting more than half a billion people (~525 million). Despite widespread drying, the climatic drivers of the long-term dryness remain uncertain. We employed a multi-metric framework to assess the climatic components of growing aridification in Africa using the Aridity Index (AI) and its climatic drivers, precipitation (P) and potential evapotranspiration (PET), during 1951-2020. Our results suggest widespread drying trends across 88.9% of Africa, with nearly half of it, about 43%, experiencing significant dryness. We reveal that increasing PET in about 85.7% of the continent emerges as a dominant driver of drying, compared to precipitation-driven drying, which covers roughly 20.3%, suggesting that atmospheric moisture demand might play a leading role. Further analysis of PET decomposition indicates that warming temperatures are the main driver of rising atmospheric moisture demand, in line with anthropogenic global climate warming. This trend is evident in accelerated dryland expansion since 1985, particularly over southern, eastern, and western Africa, where drylands are rapidly expanding. Net drying dominates most regions. East Africa, in contrast, exhibits a more complex pattern characterized by seasonal moistening, reflecting complex hydroclimatic responses. These results demonstrate that increasing PET induced by warming

This paper presents a literature-based case analysis of climate change maladaptation
in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), examining instances in which adaptation
interventions have inadvertently increased vulnerability rather than reduced it.
Drawing on a multi-theoretical framework integrating vulnerability theory,
political ecology, and the maladaptation lens, the paper synthesizes published
evidence from selected cases in Kenya, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Nigeria, and
Senegal. The review identifies recurring drivers of maladaptation, including
top-down planning, weak stakeholder inclusion, socio-cultural misalignment,
ecological unsuitability, and short-term policy approaches. The analyzed cases
include irrigation-induced conflict, exclusionary climate-smart agriculture,
ecologically damaging afforestation, inequitable water harvesting, and displacement
associated with coastal defense and resettlement programs. The paper
demonstrates how adaptation interventions can reinforce inequalities, undermine
local livelihoods, and generate new environmental risks when contextual
realities are overlooked. The analysis underscores the need for contextsensitive,
participatory, and equity-oriented adaptation planning in SSA. The
paper concludes by advocating for transformative adaptation approaches that
address structural vulnerabilities and promote sustainable, locally grounded
climate resilience.

The examination of the relationship between energy use, reliability and network characteristics in water distribution systems (WDS) requires a set of sufficient case studies to give statistical significance to the conclusions. Considering the difficulty of finding real-world systems that can be used in this kind of research, synthetic (virtual) distribution systems are the next available alternative to use as case studies. This paper describes the use of a new method for the generation of synthetic distribution systems and its subsequent comparison against real-world systems to validate the suitability of the synthetic set to drive the conclusions of future research. The algorithm for the generation of synthetic WDSs is based on the work, methods and software presented by Mair et al. (2014). For the validation procedure, five metrics or indexes that account for the network's connectivity (link density, average node degree, meshedness coefficient) and the system's reliability (Resilience Index, Network Resilience) are evaluated; the ranges in each of the metrics are then compared. The generation of synthetic WDS required an enhancement of the connectivity of the networks and a pipe sizing that accounted for practical system design. An acceptable degree of similarity between the synthetic and the real-life sets of WDSs was achieved, although some modifications to the networks may be required in the future.

The rate of environmental destruction in Ghana is very alarming to the extent that the achievement of the sustainable development goal 15 may be a mirage. In an attempt to explore sustainable ways to combat this menace, we explored the role of geography curriculum in promoting environmental awareness and attitude amongst students and teachers in Senior High Schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis. The convergent parallel design was used for the study. Three hundred and fifty (350) final year geography students were sampled proportionately, and ten (10) geography teachers were purposively sampled. The questionnaire and interview guide were tools used to collect data from the students and teachers, respectively. The study reveals that geography curriculum promotes students' awareness of the environment by increasing their appreciation towards nature and the dangers our country is subjected to as the environment is degraded. The attitudes of students toward the environment were positive as a result of their awareness of the environment. It can be observed that there is a difference between male and female geography students in relation to environmental awareness suggesting that male students exhibit significantly higher levels of environmental awareness compared to female students. Also, there is a difference between male and female geography students in relation to environmental attitude that females' students exhibit significantly higher levels of environmental attitude compared to male students. It is recommended that students and teachers alike are encouraged to convert their awareness of the environment into pro-environmental behaviours.

Tunisia, a semi-arid Mediterranean country, faces increasing climate-related pressures linked to water scarcity, agricultural instability, rapid urbanization, and limited environmental adaptation. Despite growing concern over climate vulnerability in North Africa, integrated long-term assessments of the relationship between environmental stress and sustainable development remain limited. This study analyzes multi-decadal trends from 1960 to 2025 using 15 standardized indicators from World Bank Open Data covering water resources, agriculture, energy transition, urbanization, coastal exposure, and environmental protection. The analysis combines descriptive trend evaluation with OLS regression, Mann-Kendall tests, and Sen's slope estimation to identify major structural changes across sectors. The results reveal four major trends. First, freshwater withdrawals increased dramatically, reaching over 90% of internal renewable resources by 2022, placing Tunisia among the world's most water-stressed countries. Second, agricultural systems remain highly vulnerable, characterized by declining arable land and strong cereal-yield volatility linked to rainfall variability. Third, rapid urbanization has concentrated population and infrastructure in low-elevation coastal zones exposed to sea-level rise and storm surges. Fourth, adaptation efforts remain insufficient, with limited renewable-electricity deployment and protected-area coverage remaining below international targets. The findings highlight a growing "climate-development nexus" in which resource depletion, environmental vulnerability, and slow adaptation interact through reinforcing pressures. The study identifies urgent priorities for integrated water governance, renewable-energy expansion, coastal-risk management, and ecosystem protection, directly supporting SDGs 6, 11, 13, and 15. More broadly, the Tunisian case provides an instructive framework for understanding climate-development challenges across semi-arid Mediterranean and MENA countries.

In 2013, the IAHS launched the hydrological decade 2013-2022 with the theme "Panta Rhei: Change in Hydrology and Society". The decade recognises the urgency of hydrological research to understand and predict the interactions of society and water, to support sustainable water resource use under changing climatic and environmental conditions. This paper reports on the first Panta Rhei biennium 2013-2015, providing a comprehensive resource that describes the scope and direction of Panta Rhei. We bring together the knowledge of all the Panta Rhei working groups, to summarise the most pressing research questions and how the hydrological community is progressing towards those goals. We draw out interconnections between different strands of research, and reflect on the need to take a global view on hydrology in the current era of human impacts and environmental change. Finally, we look back to the six driving science questions identified at the outset of Panta Rhei, to quantify progress towards those aims.

2011 yılında başlayan Arap Baharı, özellikle Suriye iç savaşıyla birlikte yalnızca Orta Doğu'nun siyasal coğrafyasını değil bölgesel göç rejimlerini ve devletlerin yönetim kapasitelerini de derinden etkileyen tarihsel bir kırılma yaratmıştır. Bu sürecin en görünür sonuçlarından biri, milyonlarca insanı yerinden eden kitlesel zorunlu göç hareketleri olmuştur. Türkiye ise coğrafi yakınlığı, açık kapı politikası ve bölgesel siyasal rolü nedeniyle bu hareketlerin merkez ülkelerinden biri haline gelmiştir. Böylece göç, Türkiye açısından salt insani yardım ya da sınır yönetimi meselesi olmaktan çıkmış kamu yönetimi, hukuk, dış politika, iç siyaset ve toplumsal uyum alanlarını aynı anda etkileyen çok katmanlı bir yönetişim sorunu niteliği kazanmıştır.

Rural energy is and continues to be primarily solar energy, available through photosynthetic conversion of crops (food and fodder), fuelwood, animal dung and agricultural residues. Over 80% of rural energy in the developing countries is derived from wood and animal wastes, and is primarily used for cooking and agriculture. Most of the energy used is non-commercial and produced by people themselves to meet their own needs. Rural energy, in other words, is not a commodity exchanged through a market, but a use value. Recognition of this characteristic is central to the task of rural energy planning and assessment.

Groundwater is an important resource for many countries and its scarcity is a major concern in small territories, especially in the islands where the constant extraction is creating a high risk of public calamity. This issue has been increasing because of the anthropogenic activities and the climate change and it has called the attention of scientists and stakeholders in order to assess the sustainability of the water management system, and therefore, to establish strategies for a more sustainable water use. San Andres island was taking as case study and a description of the water balance was carried out in order to understand the management system. Then, a water system sustainability assessment was performed with indicators such as water security, water quality, drinking water, sanitation, infrastructure, climate robustness, biodiversity, attractiveness, and governance, according to the City Blueprint Methodology. The result for the 24 evaluated indicators was a score of 3.2, whose...

The 1996 Ganga Water Treaty between India and Bangladesh has long been regarded as one of South Asia's most important examples of transboundary water cooperation. However, increasing climate variability, declining dry-season river flow, population growth, upstream water diversion, and ecological degradation are creating new pressures on the treaty framework. This paper critically examines how climate change and water scarcity are reshaping hydro-diplomacy between the two countries. It argues that the treaty, designed under relatively stable hydrological assumptions in the 1990s, is increasingly inadequate in addressing contemporary climate realities. The study analyses changing river hydrology in the Ganga basin, the strategic significance of the Farakka Barrage, the political economy of water sharing, and emerging diplomatic tensions regarding treaty renewal after 2026. The paper further explores the role of regional institutions, data-sharing mechanisms, and climate adaptation policies in strengthening cooperative water governance. By using recent reports from the World Bank, hydrological studies, government documents, and contemporary scholarly literature, the study demonstrates that future India-Bangladesh relations will depend significantly on adaptive hydrodiplomacy and basin-wide climate governance. The paper concludes that sustainable cooperation requires moving beyond fixed volumetric sharing toward flexible, climate-responsive, and ecosystembased river governance.

In spite of being water surplus, the 600 + million population of the large Ganges basin spread over 1.09 m km 2 in South Asia is water insecure, poor, and highly exposed to water-induced stresses of floods and droughts. The contribution from the glaciers to the streamflow is ~70% in the Himalayan catchments though spatially distributed quantification is unavailable. An application of the Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP) model with a sub-routine for snow and glaciers melt processes in the basin was set up. The model also examined the possible impacts of an increase in temperature of +1, +2 or +3°C over 20 yrs of the simulation period. The impact on stream flows was high in the upstream (+8 to +26% at Tehri Dam) and moderate in downstream (+1 to +4% at Farakka). These increases shall create flood events more frequently or of higher magnitude in the mountains and Upper Ganga flood plains. To moderate the climate-change induced impacts of floods and improve water security during the non-monsoon season the novel concepts of Underground Taming of Floods for Irrigation (UTFI) and Cranking up the Ganges Water Machine for Ecosystem Services (GAMES) were developed, and pilot tested in the Ramganga sub-basin. Analysis showed that there is an assured possibility of reducing the floods and enhancing sub-surface storage in the identified basins to the level of 45 Bm 3. The demonstrated managed aquifer recharge interventions are technically feasible, operationally acceptable and economically viable.

La investigación tuvo como objetivo estimar el caudal ecológico del río Lurín para favorecer la conservación del camarón de río (Cryphiops caementarius) en el sector de Antapucro, considerando su importancia ecológica y socioeconómica. Se aplicó un método hidrológico con enfoque cuantitativo, no experimental y de nivel explicativo, utilizando series históricas de datos hidrológicos de 1964 a 2024 proporcionadas por la Autoridad Nacional del Agua, las cuales integraron información modelada y observacional. Los resultados mostraron una marcada estacionalidad hídrica, con valores máximos de 7,98 m³/s en marzo y mínimos de 0,29 m³/s en septiembre, lo que evidencia la vulnerabilidad del ecosistema durante el estiaje. La caracterización biológica del hábitat reveló que Cryphiops caementarius presenta actualmente una distribución restringida, limitada a zonas medias del río con hábitats profundos y sustratos estables, mientras que se registraron ocho especies ícticas representativas, entre ellas pejerrey de río, bagre, lorna, carachita, sapo, cangrejo de agua dulce y libélula. Asimismo, se identificaron presiones antrópicas significativas, como pesca ilegal, vertimientos domésticos, pasivos mineros y uso de agroquímicos, que amenazan la integridad ecológica de la cuenca. En conclusión, los resultados constituyen un insumo técnico clave para la gestión sostenible del caudal ecológico, la restauración del hábitat fluvial y la conservación de C. caementarius en el río Lurín.

Bu çalışma, ABD–Türkiye ilişkilerinde su kaynakları pazarının teknik bir kaynak paylaşımı meselesinin ötesinde, çok katmanlı bir jeoekonomik tahakküm mekanizması olarak işlediğini savunmaktadır. Eleştirel jeopolitik perspektif, Gramsci'nin hegemonya kuramı ve Cascão & Zeitoun'un hidro-hegemonya yaklaşımı çerçevesinde; ABD'nin söylemsel, ekonomik ve hukuki araçlarla Türkiye'nin hidro-politik kapasitesini nasıl yeniden biçimlendirdiği incelenmektedir.

Transboundry water systems in South Asia are emerging as critical sites of geopolitical tension, where hydrological interdependence intersects with strategic state behavior and evolving regional security architectures. This paper develops a hydro-strategic governance framework to analyze how river basin politics are shaped by asymmetries of power, infrastructure competition, and institutional limitations in managing shared water resources. Focusing on major river basins in South Asia, the study examines how upstream-downstream relations are structured through infrastructure development, data control, and allocation practices that function as instruments of both cooperation and strategic leverage. It argues that conventional water governance models, which emphasize legal agreements and technical cooperation, are insufficient to explain the increasing strategicization of water in the region. Instead, water is conceptualized as a strategic resource embedded within broader geopolitical calculations, where infrastructure projects, timing of water release, and informational asymmetries operate as subtle mechanisms of influence. Using a qualitative policy analysis approach, the paper integrates insights from international water law, political geography, and security studies to construct a multi-layered analytical framework. The findings indicate a gradual shift from cooperative water management toward a competitive strategic equilibrium, characterized by trust deficits, infrastructural imbalance, and governance fragmentation. The paper concludes by proposing an integrated governance model combining institutional reform, data transparency mechanisms, and regional confidence-building measures to stabilize transboundary water relations and reduce strategic uncertainty.
​ Publication: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=6754083

findings highlight critical gaps in rural water governance and infrastructure. The study contributes empirical evidence to support local policy development and advocates for targeted, community-based water security interventions in similarly underserved rural areas.

This thesis explores the proposition that while water is unlikely to replace oil as the dominant driver of global economic power, it may surpass oil as a catalyst for regional instability, interstate coercion, migration, and civil conflict in the twenty-first century. The study argues that the geopolitics of the twentieth century revolved primarily around the control of strategic resources such as oil, whereas the geopolitics of the twenty-first century increasingly revolves around the control of interconnected systems-hydrological, infrastructural, technological, and ecological. The thesis examines how rivers, dams, desalination systems, climate change, population pressures, and technological interventions are transforming water into a central geopolitical variable. It develops the concept of "systems geopolitics," in which influence derives less from territorial conquest and more from the regulation of flows, dependencies, and infrastructural vulnerabilities. Through detailed case studies involving the Nile Basin, the Indus Waters system, China's control over Asian headwaters, desalinationdependent Gulf states, and the global expansion of dam infrastructure, the thesis argues that water insecurity increasingly manifests through instability rather than conventional war. The study concludes that the future strategic contest may center not merely on possession of territory or resources, but on the ability to regulate the systems sustaining modern civilization.

Syria already faced a significant national water deficit before the conflict, and now faces compounding pressures from damaged infrastructure, declining water supplies and rising demand driven by population return and economic recovery. Climate change is intensifying water scarcity through higher temperatures, droughts and increasing aridity, while also degrading water quality and placing additional strain on drinking water and sanitation systems. A shift toward integrated water resource management is critical: combining demand reduction (particularly in agriculture), infrastructure rehabilitation, water reuse and strengthened governance, alongside regional cooperation on transboundary water resources. Without climate risk-informed, system-wide planning, Syria risks deepening water insecurity, increasing waterborne disease and contamination risks, and locking in costly maladaptive investments that undermine long-term recovery and stability.

Fresh water is valuable natural resource for living organisms, which is being continuously depleted. Water Security means regular access and equity to safe potable water for drinking, sanitation and hygiene thereby leading to an acceptable physical and social well being. Integrated water resources management (IWRM) practices are needed to create sustainable water security. IWRM is a conceptual stakeholder participatory framework that could manage and develop the water resources in a sustainable and balanced way. It is based on the principles of social equity, economic efficiency and environmental sustainability. IWRM has been globally accepted as the water management doctrine for the 21st century. This paper presents a critical review of IWRM approach and highlights the challenges related to Rajasthan. This state is considered to be most crucial due to the insufficient water resources. State receives an average annual rainfall of 575 mm. The surface water availability in the state i...

Armed conflict remains one of the most persistent obstacles to sustainable development globally. Beyond immediate human casualties, war produces long-term socioeconomic disruptions and severe environmental degradation that collectively undermine progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This paper critically examines the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of war on sustainable development using a conceptual analytical approach. It argues that conflict not only reverses development gains but also entrenches structural poverty, weakens institutions, and accelerates ecological destruction. The study concludes that sustainable development is unattainable without sustained peacebuilding, institutional resilience, and environmental restoration strategies.

The southwestern coastal area of Bangladesh proximity to Sundarbans is a hot spot of climate change. The perception and problems along with associated risks to the adaptation of climate change are not well understood. However, the present study was conducted in 2020-2021 through a multistage sampling technique, questionnaire survey, and focus group discussions (FGD). In addition, the Likert scale and the INFORM model are used to understand perceptions, problems, and extent of risks response to climate change adaptation in the study area. This study illustrates that early-aged illiterate, medium families (5-7 in numbers) and $ 18.45-$ 36.88 per month income level are more susceptible to the adaptation of climate change. The majority of the respondents are dependent on natural resources, such as rainwater (67.3%), dried leaves (65.4%, and fishing from Sundarbans (80.6%). Besides, most of the respondents experienced disasters (66.7%), water logging and salinity (65.05%), waterborne diseases (89.5%), and monetary problems (81%), which forced them to stay in a more critical lifestyle. The perception level was high in the unconcerned level (77.15%) followed by concerned (11.4%) and very concerned (9.5%), while only 1.95% showed neutral and none of them were very concerned. Likewise, in the study region, respondents are confronted with a variety of risks and exposure (42%), vulnerabilities (33%), and lack of capacity (25%). Also, significant differences in perception level and no significant differences were observed in risk level in this study. These findings insights into the necessity of educational and financial interventions to optimize identified risks and problems and increase the perception level of effective policy-making processes and adaptation strategies to the adaptation of climate change.

The insidious economic impact of water disruption has received less attention compared to palpable climate disasters, but climate change and water security concerns call for investigation on cost consequences of property values and business losses in an already fragile water supply-demand balance in many developing countries. The economic impact of frequent water supply disruptions from the Selangor River in Malaysia due to technical issues, water pollution, and climate-related problems was estimated using the stock flow measure to assess property at risk, and survey to estimate business loss. The findings revealed that commercial, residential, and industrial property valued at RM459,041 million in 2020 in the State of Selangor and parts of Kuala Lumpur were at risk due to frequent water supply disruptions. A survey of small and medium enterprises from the manufacturing, construction, and services sectors revealed that 46% of the respondents were affected with losses amounting to RM...

Background Water security is necessary for good health, nutrition, and wellbeing, but experiences with water have not typically been measured. Given that measurement of experiences with food access, use, acceptability, and reliability (stability) has greatly expanded our ability to promote food security, there is an urgent need to similarly improve the measurement of water security. The Water InSecurity Experiences (WISE) Scales show promise in doing so because they capture user-side experiences with water in a more holistic and precise way than traditional supply- side indicators. Early use of the WISE Scales in Latin America & the Caribbean (LAC) has revealed great promise, although representative data are lacking for most of the region. Concurrent measurement of experiential food and water insecurity has the potential to inform the development of better-targeted interventions that can advance human and planetary health. Main text On April 20–21, 2023, policymakers, community orga...

Climate change has emerged as a critical driver of internal migration and displacement in Pakistan, exacerbating vulnerabilities across socioeconomic , environmental, and human security dimensions. This research examines the relationship between climate hazards including floods, droughts, glacial lake outburst floods, and coastal salinity, and heat waves and population movements within Pakistan. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, combining secondary data analysis, government reports, and case studies of major climate events (e.g., the 2010 and 2022 floods, droughts in Tharparkar and Cholistan, sea intrusion in Sindh, and glacial hazards in northern region of Pakistan), the study identifies the key drivers, patterns, and socioeconomic consequences of climate-induced displacement. Findings indicate that both rapid-onset disasters and slow-onset environmental changes contribute to temporary, seasonal, and long-term migration, disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations, particularly women, children, and marginalized households. The research highlights gaps in policy, institutional coordination, and data availability, and proposes comprehensive recommendations, including the development of a national climate migration strategy, legal recognition of climate IDPs, climate-resilient infrastructure, community-based adaptation, early warning systems, and a centralized displacement tracking database. This study underscores the urgent need to address climate-induced migration as a human security priority in Pakistan and offers evidence-based policy guidance to enhance resilience, reduce vulnerability, and support sustainable development.

Adopting Social Network Theory (SNT), the study assessed structural barriers to the dissemination and application of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) for climate adaptation, focusing on the Nyakyusa community in Tanzania's Rungwe District. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was used to test hypotheses regarding the influence of social network ties, communication channel diversity, language barriers, power imbalances, and technology access on IK dissemination and application using a cross-sectional survey design with 600 samples of farmers. The findings indicates that language barriers (β = 0.387, p < 0.001), communication channel diversity (β = 0.982, p < 0.001), and social network ties (β = 0.316, p < 0.001) all had a positive correlation with IK dissemination, indicating a possible catalytic role in the dissemination and application of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) for climate adaptation. Conversely, Technology Access negatively influenced IK dissemination in a minor but significant way (β =-0.071, p = 0.012). IK dissemination played a crucial moderating function by highly predicting application (β = 0.474, p < 0.001). However, Power Imbalance did not immediately influence IK application. The study concludes that the optimal way to close the IK application gap is to improve the social circuitry of knowledge transmission through the strengthening of the social network ties, channel diversification and strategic positioning of communication technology access. It is crucial for the policymakers to shift away from IK preservation to actively promoting the social networks' ties, as it can improve IK dissemination, hence IK application for Indigenous Knowledge for Climate Change Adaptation.

Progress on SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) remains dangerously off track despite significant investments and technological efforts. Ahead of the 2026 UN Water Conference, this framework provides a strategic blueprint to shift from fragmented commitments toward systemic, transformative action.

Climate change is severely affecting the availability of water and its quality. 1 Therefore it represents a direct challenge to health. Not only the water-born, but also the vector and temperature-related diseases are challenging the existing health system and safe water supply. Thus, water and health security have progressively been challenged primarily by pollution, waste, toxins and climate-change-related hazards and disasters. This chapter links the changing understanding on socio-environmental deterioration with water and health security. Using a case study of Mexico, it reviews the effects on the environment and the human well-being of the dominant economic model based on wasteful fossil energy, social inequality, consumerism, fashion, and growth concentrated in small elites. This model has brought both the planet and society as a whole to its limits of survival, but it has also affected regions, cultures and social classes differently. Poor countries and vulnerable groups have become the main victims suffering from socio-economic and climate-induced changes. In Mexico, the epidemiology has been changing, and traditional illnesses (diarrhoea, pulmonary conditions, under-nourishment) coexist with modern ones linked to the transformation of the diet (diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, cancer) and the pollution of water, air and soil (intoxication, respiratory, kidney and skin problems). At the conceptual level, in the framework of the PEISOR model this chapter explores the complex interaction between anthropogenic drivers, impacts of and policy responses to climate change, their interrelationship with the dominant 1 This text was adapted from two former published chapters by Oswald Spring, Úrsula (2012).

Why do more than 24,000 people-basically children-die each day from hunger and why only in Sub-Saharan Africa has the number of undernourished children grown from 29 to 37 million during the last decade (UNICEF 2015a)? 1 Why do three billion people lack access to basic sanitation? Why has the global situation created more than two billion extremely poor people? Why do 55 million Latin Americans not have enough to eat despite living in the most biodiverse region on the planet (Cepal 2015) that provides the world with three of the five basic foods (corn, beans and potatoes)? How did this situation develop and why is it getting worse in different countries of the south? Where are the processes of development, modernisation, efficiency and justice? On the other hand, the United Nations' Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA) is "responsible for bringing together humanitarian actors to ensure a coherent response to emergencies. OCHA also ensures there is a framework within which each actor can contribute to the overall response effort". 2 In its Strategic Plan to 2017, it coordinates humanitarian actions in conjunction with national and international actors in order to reduce the human suffering in disaster zones and especially in regions with complex emergencies, where direct violence and disasters often destroy the community's survival conditions. Thus OCHA advocates and promotes the human rights of people in need, develops emergency support and promotes disaster and conflict prevention. In regions highly exposed to natural and human disasters, OCHA supports governments and international actors to promote disaster risk reduction (DRR; IPCC 2012 IPCC , 2014a, b) , b) and in the longer terms sustainable solutions in crisis situations and disaster risks 1 This text builds on previous texts by the author and it was developed further for this book (

Pakistan has suffered 28 major floods since 1950, causing USD 53 billion in damages and displacing millions, yet policy remains reactive, fragmented, and dominated by costly engineering fixes. Floods here are less “natural” disasters than failures of governance, planning, and cultural framing. A unified, nationally owned water action plan, linking policy, institutions, technology, and communities, can transform floods from recurring crises into opportunities for resilience, water security, and sustainable growth.

This paper explores integrating ecological sustainability and peacebuilding as a strategic framework for development in the Middle East. While the region is often characterized by instability, the authors argue that "Peaceful Ecological Development" offers a viable pathway to regional security and cooperation. Drawing on ecological resilience theory, the study identifies critical environmental threats-such as acute water scarcity, desertification, and biodiversity loss-while highlighting significant regional opportunities in solar energy, transboundary water management, and green finance. The research emphasizes the "water-energy nexus," noting that a transition to renewable energy is essential not only for climate resilience but also for preserving limited water resources. Central to this transition is the need for inclusive governance, specifically increased public participation and the active involvement of women to break cycles of environmental degradation and distrust. Socioeconomically, the paper posits that cross-border ecological collaboration could save billions in budgetary costs, particularly regarding water salinity, while simultaneously driving job creation and educational attainment. Ultimately, the document concludes that applying a "Political Ecology" approach-which accounts for conflict sensitivity and transboundary cooperation-is essential for the Middle East to transition from a state of resource-driven tension to one of sustainable, peaceful prosperity.

Nature-Based Mental Health (NbMH) is conceptualized as the psychological benefits individuals derive from direct or indirect interactions with natural environments, including reduced stress, improved mood, emotional resilience, and overall well-being. Although increasingly recognized, NbMH remains underexplored in rural and climate-vulnerable settings. Grounded in the Social-Ecological Model (SEM), this study examines how environmental exposure, measured through residence in Community Resource Management Area (CREMA), frequency of nature contact, and proximity to natural environments, shapes subjective NbMH among farmers in northern Ghana. NbMH was assessed using a 15-item scale capturing stress, anxiety, sleep quality, coping capacity, and emotional resilience. Drawing on cross-sectional survey data from 1107 respondents across 16 CREMA and non-CREMA communities, we employed nested ordered logistic regression models to examine multilevel determinants of reporting "good" NbMH. Findings show that residence in CREMA communities was consistently associated with a higher likelihood of reporting "good" NbMH (OR: 1.75-2.20; p < 0.001). Similarly, an increase in frequency of weekly nature contact increased the likelihood of "good" NbMH (OR: 1.06-1.07; p = 0.011), while an increase in the distance from natural spaces decreased the likelihood of reporting "good" NbMH (OR: 0.84-0.85; p < 0.001). Additional significant predictors included age, livelihood diversification, financial stressors, enrollment in social protection programs, and distance to health and water facilities. Poorly perceived social support systems were also negatively associated with reporting "good" NbMH. It is recommended that nature-based strategies be integrated into rural mental health policies and that support be provided for community-led conservation initiatives to enhance well-being.

Tato diplomová práce se zaměřuje na kulturní změnu u Šerpů a Thakálijů, dvou společností žijících ve Vysokém Himálaji. Soustřeďuje se na kritické období přelomu padesátých a šedesátých let minulého století, kdy došlo k uzavření tibetské hranice pro tradiční dálkový obchod, jenž měl pro obě studované společnosti vitální význam. V první části přináší stručný přehled himálajské historicko-geografické situace a popisuje transhimálajský obchod a podrobněji vysvětluje procesy tvorby etnicity v nepálské části Himálaje, které jsou pro pochopení studovaných společností důležité. V dalších dvou kapitolách věnovaných společnostem Šerpů a Thakálijů se práce věnuje tradičnímu způsobu života studovaných etnik a jejich adaptaci na drsné vysokohorské prostředí, vysvětluje hluboké změny, jimž obě společnosti čelily a poukazuje na adaptivní procesy a mechanismy, které uplatnily, aby v novém kontextu uspěly. V závěru přináší zhodnocení a srovnání adaptačních strategií obou skupin.This diploma work is ...

Background Water security is necessary for good health, nutrition, and wellbeing, but experiences with water have not typically been measured. Given that measurement of experiences with food access, use, acceptability, and reliability (stability) has greatly expanded our ability to promote food security, there is an urgent need to similarly improve the measurement of water security. The Water InSecurity Experiences (WISE) Scales show promise in doing so because they capture user-side experiences with water in a more holistic and precise way than traditional supply- side indicators. Early use of the WISE Scales in Latin America & the Caribbean (LAC) has revealed great promise, although representative data are lacking for most of the region. Concurrent measurement of experiential food and water insecurity has the potential to inform the development of better-targeted interventions that can advance human and planetary health. Main text On April 20–21, 2023, policymakers, community orga...

Across the globe, disparities in access to natural resources are at the root of discord. Contested access to water, land, and forests-combined with a changing climatethreatens prospects for stability, development, and peace. Governments and nongovernmental actors are accordingly embarking on peacebuilding efforts with an ecological dimension. Despite an emerging literature on environmental peacebuilding, a systematic link between peacebuilding and ecological systems remains poorly understood.

Editorial Note

What follows is a structured colloquium convened in April 2026, during the active phase of the conflict between Iran, Israel, and the United States. Four simulacra of the Strategy, Conflict & Power Department were activated and tasked with one of the most urgent questions in contemporary security studies: water. Specifically, how vulnerable is Israel's desalination infrastructure to Iranian attack? Can Israel fall back on natural water resources if the coastal plants are destroyed? And what is the strategic picture for the Gulf states — Kuwait, Qatar, the UAE — whose dependence on desalinated water is, if anything, more total than Israel's own? The colloquium was recorded as conflict-active intelligence reporting indicated ongoing strikes on desalination infrastructure across the theatre. It is published here without redaction.

Introduction
This study aimed to investigate the factors influencing farmers’ participation in the implementation of modern irrigation systems and to identify the key determinants of their involvement in such projects. The significance of this research lies in the crucial role of farmers’ active cooperation in achieving sustainable water resource management, particularly in agricultural regions such as Aq Qala, located in Golestan Province. The primary objective was to examine individual, economic, and institutional characteristics that affect farmers’ willingness or reluctance to participate in these initiatives. Key factors considered included education, economic status, land ownership, access to water sources, farm size, and familiarity with participatory concepts and local institutions. By modeling these factors using the C5 decision tree algorithm, the study sought to provide a reliable predictive tool for policymakers and agricultural planners to design targeted interventions, enhance sustainable water resource management, and promote effective and enduring farmer participation. Additionally, the research aimed to offer practical recommendations to increase farmer engagement in modern irrigation programs, ultimately contributing to improved water management, enhanced agricultural productivity, and long-term resilience of local farming communities. The insights gained from this study may also inform future strategies for the adoption of innovative agricultural technologies in similar socio-economic and environmental contexts.
Materials and Methods
This research is applied in nature and employs a survey-based approach for data collection. For modeling and analysis, the C5 decision tree algorithm was used. The classification method of this algorithm is based on dividing data into smaller and more homogeneous subsets. Its advantages include simplicity, high interpretability, and the use of a small number of parameters, which enhances its efficiency and computational performance. The implementation of the C5 decision tree algorithm in this study was carried out using the RapidMiner software environment. After designing and distributing the questionnaire among farmers, agricultural experts, and relevant authorities, the collected data were analyzed using the C5 decision tree modeling method in RapidMiner. This approach was employed to identify the key factors influencing farmers’ willingness or unwillingness to participate in the implementation of modern irrigation systems. The research sample consisted of 68 farmers from the Aqqala region in Golestan Province, Iran. Their responses to the questionnaire were analyzed to determine the most significant factors affecting their decision to participate in modern irrigation projects. The validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by academic supervisors, professional experts, and officials from the Golestan Regional Water Company. The reliability of the questionnaire was also verified through Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, which was calculated using SPSS version 22. The independent variables used in this study included literacy level, education, age, occupation, economic status, cultivated land area, land ownership type (agricultural or orchard), water sources, familiarity with the concept of participation, and awareness of local institutions and organizations. The dependent variable was defined as the farmers’ willingness or unwillingness to participate in the implementation of modern irrigation projects.


Results and Discussion
The results revealed that farmers’ willingness to participate in modern irrigation systems is shaped by a combination of economic, social, and institutional factors. Key individual and economic drivers included literacy, economic status, land ownership, and familiarity with participatory practices. Educated, financially secure, and land-owning farmers exhibited higher participation, whereas illiterate, low-income, or tenant farmers were more cautious. Institutionally, access to legal water sources and trust in governmental Authorities, along with economic incentives such as free installation and after-sales service guarantees, were significant motivators. The interaction between age and education showed that younger farmers and educated older farmers were more actively engaged. Conversely, distrust of governmental institutions and complex water regulations acted as barriers. The C5 decision tree effectively modeled these complex relationships and quantified the predictive accuracy of farmers’ participation willingness. Without economic support, it is difficult to achieve sustainable participation, especially among low-income groups. In the social dimension, age and education level play a reinforcing role, and the younger generation and the educated elderly have shown a greater willingness to participate in modern irrigation system projects. On the other hand, distrust in government institutions and the complexity of laws related to water resources are considered to be factors inhibiting effective participation. Accordingly, promoting farmer participation requires a combination of economic support, legal facilitation, targeted education, and institutional trust-building.
Conclusion
Enhancing farmer participation in modern irrigation systems requires a multifaceted strategy encompassing economic support, targeted education, legal facilitation, and institutional trust-building. Financial status and governmental support emerged as the strongest predictors of participation, indicating that sustainable engagement is unlikely without economic backing. Social factors such as age and education play a supplementary role, with literate populations, particularly youth, more inclined to participate. Distrust of authorities and regulatory complexity remain significant obstacles. Policy recommendations include providing low-interest financial support, implementing targeted training and outreach programs, and establishing sustainable post-implementation technical services. Such measures are expected to transform minimal or conditional participation into active, voluntary, and enduring engagement, promoting optimal and sustainable water resource management in agriculture.

Recoge en forma integral la experiencia desarrollada entre noviembre del 2023 y julio de 2025 en la provincia de Ayabaca, región Piura, articulando con precisión los componentes técnicos, sociales y culturales del proyecto. Destaca el rol protagónico de mujeres, hombres y jóvenes de las organizaciones comunales y la institución educativa local. La ANA resalta las estrategias de AbE con enfoque de igualdad, mingas inclusivas, educación ambiental intergeneracional y la integración de conservación con desarrollo productivo sostenible para la seguridad hídrica de la cuenca Chira Piura.Recoge en forma integral la experiencia desarrollada entre noviembre del 2023 y julio de 2025 en la provincia de Ayabaca, región Piura, articulando con precisión los componentes técnicos, sociales y culturales del proyecto. Destaca el rol protagónico de mujeres, hombres y jóvenes de las organizaciones comunales y la institución educativa local.

Water scarcity for agriculture due to the drought in the Mekong River system including the Tonle Sap Lake remains vulnerable to natural variability influences (unstable water demand/supply). The water level in the Mekong River and the Tonle Sap Lake dropped below their historical long-term average levels and even close to their minimum values at some station in the Lower part of the Mekong and the Tonle Sap.
In Cambodia, climate change brings severity of drought and floods, which have strongly affected the socio-economic status of the people, especially in the year 2019 and 2020. The climate change has also reduced the availability of water in the river, affecting rice production and people’s livelihood in the area.
During the past decades, agricultural land in Cambodia has been changed with the following trends: (i) some areas have become cultivation land from deforestation; (ii) due to improvement of irrigation, technology and market orientation, farmers have changed crops and crop pattern, resulting in increased crop production from one to two crops per year in some areas; (iii) agriculture land is degraded, forcing farmers to leave the land fallow; and (iv) agricultural land has been changed into other use purposes, including for hydropower projects and industrial zones.

This study provides an environmental management approach to a global public health challenge of groundwater arsenic contamination. The studied arsenic-exposed population lives in three villages (Suarmarwa, Rampur Diara, and Bhawani Tola) within the Maner block of Patna district, in the middle-Ganga Plain in the Bihar state, India. The health risks due to the consumption of arsenic contaminated water were derived through quantifying the hazard quotient (HQ) and cancer risks followed by calculating the relative risks and odds ratio of visible arsenicosis and other diseases symptoms. A hotspots and coldspots map of the HQ was produced using Arc Geographic Information System for targeting the most vulnerable population for arsenic mitigation. In the study area, the arsenic concentrations in drinking water exceeded the limits set by the World Health Organization and the Bureau of Indian Standards. The HQ and cancer risks for children in all the three villages were high and very high, respectively. However, the hotspots of HQ were confined to Bhawani Tola. Suarmarwa experienced relatively higher risks of arsenicosis and other health challenges because of the poor socioeconomic and demographic conditions of the inhabitants. Therefore, since Suarmarwa is the most vulnerable village, it should be given priority in arsenic mitigation and health intervention programs. The HQ mapping could be an important decision-making tool for identifying the most vulnerable population for prioritizing arsenic mitigation and other health intervention activities.

The research was conducted in Chibefwe Ward of Mkushi District-Central Province. Its major objective was to assess the effects of climate change on water resources and hydrologic cycles and establish the trends, risks and adaptation strategies from 2000 and 2024. The study used a mixed methods approach and a sample of 60 ward residents was used to collect data from the field. Both quantitative and qualitative data from the respondents were collected using questionnaires. A statistical package of SPSS and Microsoft Office Excel was used in analyzing responses from the ward residents. The data analysis was done using statistical tools such as percentages, frequencies, and means. Furthermore, a Chi square test was conducted to determine whether there is an associa tion between the described temperature and precipitation changes and climate related shocks (droughts or floods). Taking climate variations, Satellite Imagery and stakeholders' views into consideration, this study would help to explore the interrelationship between climate change and water resources in an all-around way. The findings indicate that the water availability, quality, distribution, and utilization are impacted by climate change, which has important implications for the local society and ecosyste m. The key adaptation mechanisms include watershed development, water saving, and community level adaptation. This study has relevance for evidence-based interventions in policies and practices of sustainable groundwater management in Mkushi District. The results in this study could provide implications for the policy making and practice for climate risk-based water management which would reduce the climatic vulnerability of local communities and ecosystems. The findings of the study may have implications for water resource governance elsewhere where same conditions exist, and the necessity for an anticipatory adaptation and mitigation measures are being underscored.

The research was conducted in Chibefwe Ward of Mkushi District -Central Province. Its major objective was to assess the effects of climate change on water resources and hydrologic cycles and establish the trends, risks and adaptation strategies from 2000 and 2024. The study used a mixed methods approach and a sample of 60 ward residents was used to collect data from the field. Both quantitative and qualitative data from the respondents were collected using questionnaires. A statistical package of SPSS and Microsoft Office Excel was used in analyzing responses from the ward residents. The data analysis was done using statistical tools such as percentages, frequencies, and means. Furthermore, a Chi square test was conducted to determine whether there is an associa tion between the described temperature and precipitation changes and climate related shocks (droughts or floods). Taking climate variations, Satellite Imagery and stakeholders' views into consideration, this study would help to explore the interrelationship between climate change and water resources in an all-around way. The findings indicate that the water availability, quality, distribution, and utilization are impacted by climate change, which has important implications for the local society and ecosyste m. The key adaptation mechanisms include watershed development, water saving, and community level adaptation. This study has relevance for evidence-based interventions in policies and practices of sustainable groundwater management in Mkushi District. The results in this study could provide implications for the policy making and practice for climate risk-based water management which would reduce the climatic vulnerability of local communities and ecosystems. The findings of the study may have implications for water resource governance elsewhere where same conditions exist, and the necessity for an anticipatory adaptation and mitigation measures are being underscored.

The impacts of low water flow and drought are largely non-structural and generally cover a large geographical area. This makes it difficult to assess the effects of drought and to unambiguously link cause and effect. This project did not go into the details of the overall impact of economic on community livelihoods, rice production and fish yields.

Water security in the Cirebon Metropolitan Region (CMR) is under threat from regular flood and drought events, rapid urbanisation and climate change. This study used the Guttman's scale approach to assess household water insecurity in the CMR. Factor and cluster analyses were then applied to confirm the results and identify issues that shaped household water insecurity in four urbanisation levels in the CMR, namely urban, urban/peri-urban transition (UPT), peri-urban, and rural. Data were obtained through surveys of 225 farm households and 205 non-farm households using face-to-face interviews. The study shows spatial variations of water insecurity concerning urbanisation and farm and non-farm households. The study indicates that dominant factors shaping household water insecurity in the CMR are (i) unacceptable levels in water risks and (ii) inadequate water sources and services to satisfy the population's needs in relation to health, livelihood, ecosystems, and production. Flooding in the region significantly affects water insecurity of UPT farm and non-farm households, while droughts affect rural farm and non-farm households. The methodology used in this study provides an analytical framework to better understand socio-ecohydrological issues underpinning farm and non-farm household water insecurity and for developing an evidence-based water security policy in a rapidly urbanising region.

This chapter provides a snapshot of what is covered in the preceding chapters on options and strategies for balanced development leading to liveable cities. The chapters are organized under nine sections, including peri-urbanization; culture and social economy; land use planning; water security; wastewater and irrigation; urban agriculture and food security; impact of climate change and adaptation; legal, policy and institutional framework; and integrated urban development. The chapters under these sections cover a broad range of issues for the planning of future cities and peri-urban regions with respect to (1) balanced urban development policies and institutions for future cities; (2) understanding the effects of land use change, population increase, and water demand for the liveability of cities; (3) longterm planning needs and transboundary approaches to ensure secured future for generations ahead; and (4) strategies for optimal land, water, and energy uses for viable and liveable cities. The book emphasizes integrated planning for future development of liveable, resilient, and sustainable cities and peri-urban areas.

A major challenge we face globally is that cities are growing rapidly and most of this growth is inevitably is occurring in peri-urban areas. The concept of balanced urban development is complex and is linked to liveability of urban areas along with water, food and energy security. Increasingly, liveability is becoming important for urban planners and governments at all levels. There are many environmental, economic, political and social challenges if the goals of achieving sustainable, liveable and productive urban regions are to be achieved. The concept of sustainable development and liveable cities symbolise the big visionary ideas for urban planning and balanced development but implementation of these popular visions can encounter a host of confl icts due to a range of interests and stakeholders involved. The process of achieving balanced urban development may require learning from the past successes and mistakes to identify what makes a good practice for balanced urban development and guide local governments, planning agencies and developers to plan and design future cities that are highly liveable. At present there is insuffi cient policy focus on the challenges of the peri-urban areas of growing mega-urban regions around the world, because they are not recognised as an integral part of the functional activities that drive the growth of these urban areas. Thus, policies for peri-urban regions have to be given priority at both national and global levels, if 'globally just urban places' are to emerge.