Books by Jasna Vukovic
Edited books by Jasna Vukovic
The main approaches for the study of Tripolye-Cucuteni painted ornaments Elena Starkova | Get int... more The main approaches for the study of Tripolye-Cucuteni painted ornaments Elena Starkova | Get into the groove: Decorative techniques and motifs on the Late Eneolithic pottery from the site of Adžine Njive (Western Serbia) Marija Svilar, Dragan Milanović, Miroslav Kočić | The development of ceramic decoration at the Late Bronze Age settlement of Hlyboke Ozero-2: Can we learn more with data mining methods? Anastasiia Korokhina | Apulo-Lucanian Hellenistic Ware. An entangled node between Aegean and Italic pottery production Carlo De Mitri | Ars ornamentum: Analysis of the decorative repertoire present on the tin-glazed wares of southern production from Cencelle (VT) Flora Miele
Craft production and its significance for understanding social relations are one of the essential... more Craft production and its significance for understanding social relations are one of the essential topics in prehistoric archaeology. Standardization of raw materials, products, and manufacturing procedures, and the presence or absence of specialized artisans still challenge scholars engaged in the studies of technology, social archaeology, exchange and distribution networks and economy in the past. In this volume, seven case studies covering a chronological span from the Neolithic to La Tène Europe explore the notions of standardization and specialization, the nature of their interrelationship, the methods for assessing their presence in the archaeological record, and their significance for the reconstruction of social relations and emergence of social complexity, while two ethnoarchaeological studies focus on the organization of production and methods of estimation of a number of artisans. This volume brings together research from prominent scholars, based on different theoretical perspectives, thus giving new insight into the fundamental issues related to artisans and their crafts.
Papers by Jasna Vukovic
Life cycles of Early and Late Neolithic pottery in the Central Balkans: Use and secondary use vs. typology
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2025
Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology, 2023
Apstrakt: Od početaka arheologije kao discipline, kontrolisanje vremena, odnosno smeštanje pojedi... more Apstrakt: Od početaka arheologije kao discipline, kontrolisanje vremena, odnosno smeštanje pojedinih pojava u neki vremenski okvir predstavljalo je osnovu svakog istraživanja. Uprkos kritikama koncepta vremena u arheologiji kao ograničenog i linearnog, on je i dalje dominantan. Apsolutne metode datovanja, postajući sve preciznije i dostupnije, široko se primenjuju, pa gotovo da nema rada u kome se, bez obzira na temu, naširoko ne predstavljaju rezultati datovanja mnogobrojnih setova uzoraka. Istovremeno, metode relativnog datovanja ne gube na značaju, pa razmatranja tipologije i dalje predstavljaju osnovni metodološki postupak kojim se arheološki nalazi kulturno i vremenski opredeljuju. S druge strane, međutim, usložnjavaju se naučna pitanja o prošlosti. Mnogobrojni procesi (koji mogu biti dugotrajni ili, pak, relativno kratke epizode) neraskidivo su povezani s datovanjem, ali nije uvek jasno kako ono doprinosi njihovom potpunom razumevanju. Tu se posebno ističu procesi tehnološke inovacije i procesi kulturne transmisije, koji, osim vremenski, mogu biti i prostorno ograničeni. Zato je potrebno preispitati gotovo opšteprihvaćeno stanovište po kome metode datovanja imaju interpretativni potencijal, i s tim u vezi-da li su uvek ključne za razumevanje mehanizama kulturnih procesa. Drugim rečima, da li rezultati datovanja predstavljaju privid naučnosti kao zamene za slabosti u interpretaciji.
Zbornik Narodnog muzeja, 2023
Making Spaces into Places, edited by Nenad N. Tasić, Dushka Urem-Kotsou and Marcel Burić, 2020
The Late Neolithic/Early Eneolithic Building 01/06 at the site of Vinča-Belo Brdo on the
Danube ... more The Late Neolithic/Early Eneolithic Building 01/06 at the site of Vinča-Belo Brdo on the
Danube burned suddenly. The daub sealed the interior of the three-room structure and preserved its contents as they stood in the 46th century BC. The building was preserved so well that the details of its interior can be reconstructed. On the floor, under thick layers of destruction, ovens, querns, and deposits of artefacts and ecofacts were discovered, capturing a moment in time. The systematic retrieval of remarkably well-preserved plant macro-remains and other materials, and subsequent analyses, offer new information about practices such as food processing and storage and the use of space towards the end of the occupation of the site. In this article, we present a detailed examination of the interior architecture, and of finds of ceramics, stone, plant and animal remains within each of the three rooms of Building 01/06. Our detailed contextual analysis of the building’s internal configuration and of its contents, coupled with the precise dating of organic material, provides new data for the interpretation of a Vinča-style building and its use.
Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology, 2022
Building upon the idea of Douglass Bailey that prehistoric figurines represent actual individuals... more Building upon the idea of Douglass Bailey that prehistoric figurines represent actual individuals, it is suggested here that their makers represented people in the manner they perceived them, following the role models familiar from their own society. This further implies that, on the grounds of certain indicators, it may be possible to identify social differences depending on the age, sex/gender, and possibly other modes of inequality. An attempt is made here to define the criteria identifying the markers – indicators of inequality, such as: representations of hair style and jewellery, size of figurines, as well as the correlation between these indicators and the details on the figurines’ bodies pointing to their sex/gender or age. In the assemblage from the site Pavlovac-Čukar, the
correlation has been established between the representations ascribed as male and massive bangle bracelets and belts, indicating that adult male individuals of higher status were marked out by the number of bangles and the way of wearing the belt. A similar suggestion is proposed concerning the large-size figurines, marked with incisions perhaps representing tattoo marks, with looser breasts, indicating the possibility that older women obtained higher social status than the young ones. It is worth noting that in the case of the Vinča figurines little attention is paid to the representation of hair style, although it has been established
that in the preindustrial societies, hair is an important indicator of social
status, even more than jewellery. Hair length, specific hair styles, as well as various ornaments placed here, indicate sex/gender and social differences, various group and individual identities, as well as aesthetic ideas. Two heads from Čukar, as well as the one from Predionica, perform specific hair styles – hair shorter, reaching just below ears, and the crown is shaven. Bearing in mind that these figurines may show portrait characteristics, it may be suggested that these individuals may have achieved higher social status
Zbornik Narodnog muzeja XXV/1, 2021
Secondary use and recycling are well-known in archaeology, but in the case of ceramic
objects, on... more Secondary use and recycling are well-known in archaeology, but in the case of ceramic
objects, only vessels have been analyzed. Several figurines excavated at the site of Pavlovac-
Čukar, however, exhibit traces of use – damage in the form of different kinds of abrasion.
The traces on the leg of a realistically modeled figurine (fig. 1) are present in the form
of deep grooves of a triangular cross-section. The sides of the grooves are smooth and flattened.
According to the barely visible channels parallel to the vertical axis of the tool, the
movement in which the tool was used was in the up-down direction. Also, on the left lateral
side, the original surface is worn out and removed. Such damage does not exist on the right
side, suggesting that the tool was held slightly obliquely, so that the pressure of the abrasive
movement was higher on the left side of the tool. Another figurine leg (fig. 2) exhibits similar
grooves on its back side. The traces on both tools suggest that they were used in the process
of smoothing, finishing, and/or sharpening of wooden/bone tools, possibly awls. Small
grooves and channels (with pedestalled temper) on the upper part of a columnar figurine
(fig. 3) are harder to interpret. Fragment of a figurine representing a female with incised
clothes/ornaments (fig. 4) exhibits an abraded patch on its belly: at the beginning of the
damaged zone, the traces are especially intensive and are manifested by parallel deep diagonal
notches. The figurine tool could have been used in the processes such as scraping or flattening
some hard material. Finally, the small figurine shown in fig. 5 exhibits abraded base
and head, with flattened sand temper, indicating use over some hard material.
Five figurines from Pavlovac with traces of use open new questions related to the meaning
and function of the figurines during the Late Neolithic. They were recycled after the
breaking and were probably used in everyday activities. This further leads to the conclusion
that the primary function of the figurines (symbolic or ritual) was not long-lasting. This
further underlines the possibility that they were the objects with a single-use, or disposable
after they fulfilled their designated role. The considerations about the traces of use on the
figurines are still lacking, so the specimens from Čukar reveal an urgent need for further research
in this field.
Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology, 2021
Since the inception of the discipline of archaeology, figurines have been considered as the basis... more Since the inception of the discipline of archaeology, figurines have been considered as the basis for research into the praehistoric social order and religious ideas. In spite of the numerous critiques, the idea that they are the reflection of adoration of Mother Goddess and fertility cults, has persevered even to the present day, mainly thanks to the work of Maria Gimbutas. Her simplified approach to praehistory, apart from giving rise to pseudo-archaeological narratives, has induced severe criticism and polemics inside archaeology. The concept of the Goddess has migrated during the recent period from the academic writing to the realm of pseudo-science, daily politics and activism. In our country, the ideas
of the Golden Past, considered to be the origin of the European civilization, are particularly present in the „grey zone“: the public sphere, facilitated through media. All these narratives are based upon the preconception that in the Neolithic collections the representations of women dominate. The results of the preliminary analyses of gender representation in Neolithic assemblages have proven that the claims of women’s dominance are ill-founded, and emphasized
once more the significant presence, or even dominance of asexual figurines. On the other hand, the criteria for identification have shown to be unreliable, raising the question of usefulness of such attempts, as well as a number of new questions. Primarily, the role and meaning of the presence/absence of secondary sex attributes, their correlation to age, as well as possible regional differences in meaning and function of figurines are discussed.
Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology 15(3), 2020
Keramika i nesedentarne zajednice: poreklo, tehnologija izrade i upotreba Apstrakt: Od početaka a... more Keramika i nesedentarne zajednice: poreklo, tehnologija izrade i upotreba Apstrakt: Od početaka antropologije/arheologije kao discipline, veština izrade ke-ramike prepoznata je kao prelomni trenutak u ljudskoj prošlosti. Do skoro se keramika objašnjavala kao deo neolitskog paketa i dovodila u vezu sa počecima poljoprivrede i sedentarnog načina života. Keramika koja je otkrivena među lovcima-sakupljačima kasnog pleistocena na Dalekom istoku nesumnjivo je pokazala da ona predstavlja ino-vaciju koja je potpuno nezavisna od kultivacije biljaka i domestikacije životinja. To je izazvalo potrebu za preispitivanjem dosadašnjih saznanja. Iako su postojale različite hipoteze koje su objašnjavale pojavu najranije keramike, danas se čini da je invencija keramičke tehnologije izazvana po svoj prilici sasvim utilitarnim, praktičnim razlozima i da je najuže povezana sa pripremom i donekle skladištenjem namirnica životinjskog, najčešće akvatičkog porekla, i u nekim slučajevima orašastih plodova. S druge strane, međutim, uzroci i mehanizmi adopcije keramike kao nove tehnologije mogli su biti raznoliki i zavisili su od niza faktora. Jedna od karakteristika keramike mobilnih za-jednica je i njena veza sa tehnologijama izrade predmeta od pletenih struktura (kanap, korpe, vreće, prostirke, tkanine). Oni su mogli biti korišćeni u postupku oblikovanja keramičkih posuda, kao podupirači ili kalupi. Na kraju, razmotrena je starčevačka kera-mika. Uprkos tome što na Balkan "stiže" zajedno s drugim karakteristikama neolitskog paketa, ona pokazuje značajne sličnosti sa keramikom mobilnih zajednica, posebno u pogledu načina izrade u kalupima od propadljivih materijala ili upotrebom tkanina radi lakšeg odvajanja prosušene posude od kalupa. Sve ovo izaziva potrebu za daljim istraži-vanjima međuzavisnosti tehnologija pletenih struktura i keramike, ali i širih pitanja kao što su mehanizmi kulturne transmisije. Ključne reči: rana keramika, poreklo keramike, upotreba, mobilne zajednice, lovci-sakupljači, tekstil, "meke" tehnologije Od početaka antropologije/arheologije kao discipline, veština izrade kera-mike prepoznata je kao prelomni trenutak u ljudskoj prošlosti. Kao prva svesna upotreba hemije, odnosno prvi sintetički materijal u istoriji čovečanstva, koji u takvom obliku ne postoji u prirodi (Childe 1951, 76), keramika je posmatrana
Zbornik Narodnog muzeja, 2019
Апстракт: Тробојне посуде (black-topped) познате су са низа рановинчанских локалитета, али и из д... more Апстракт: Тробојне посуде (black-topped) познате су са низа рановинчанских локалитета, али и из других области југоисточне Европе. На локалитету Павловац-Чукар пронађено је неколико оваквих посуда, којe представљају добар пример за преиспитивање начина њихове израде и значаја у неолитском друштву. У раду су размотрене њихове технолошке карактеристике, односно технике израде, пре свега начин печења. С друге стране, трагови поправки и преправки указују на могућност да се ради о престижним предметима, који су, могуће је, осим утилитарне функције имали и посебан симболички значај.
Opuscula Archaeologica, 2018
The considerations about Late Neolithic Vinča pottery are numerous in archaeological literature, ... more The considerations about Late Neolithic Vinča pottery are numerous in archaeological literature, but the Neolithic technology, and especially firing procedures are still unknown. The main goal of conducted experiment was reconstruction of reduced firing in pits, but also open-air firing and intentional blackening of the vessels fired in oxidizing atmosphere. The results revealed advantages of pit-firing. From the point of view of technological choices, it was established that maintaining low temperatures of the firing was intentional decision of the potter in order to avoid cracking originated from calcium-carbonate decomposition.
Apstrakt: U radu se na primeru jednog bronzanodopskog nalaza razmatra način na koji se na osnovu ... more Apstrakt: U radu se na primeru jednog bronzanodopskog nalaza razmatra način na koji se na osnovu sporne pseudonaučne ideje o vinčanskom pismu izmišlja kulturno nasleđe i kao takvo prihvata u javnosti. Minijaturni keramički pršljenak iz Vatina na kome se nalaze znaci se u obilju pseudonaučne literature često pominje kao predstavnik vinčanskog pisma sa dešifrovanom porukom: " život je ljubav " , " prevodom " koji se pri-pisuje Radivoju Pešiću, iako u njegovim radovima o postupku prevoda nema pomena. Zahvaljujući medijima, i posebno internetu, međutim, jedan bronzanodopski predmet postaje neolitski, a njegova različita (pseudonaučna) tumačenja dospela su u javni pro-stor, pa se stvorila slika o duboko duhovnoj i filozofski nastrojenoj vinčanskoj civiliza-ciji. Posebno je opasno to što se maksima " život je ljubav " i uopšte ideja o vinčanskom pismu ističu kao deo kulturnog nasleđa i reklamiraju, između ostalog, i u ponudi iz oblasti kulturnog turizma. S obzirom na to da se nasleđe posmatra kao upotreba proš-losti kao kulturnog, ekonomskog i političkog resursa, u našoj sredini se pitanje baštine dodatno usložnjava jer se nasleđe bukvalno izmišlja. Zbog toga je izuzetno važno da profesionalni arheolozi i naučnici više energije ulažu u domen javne arheologije, kako bi deljenjem informacija, edukacijom i aktivnim učestvovanjem u javnoj sferi uticali na formiranje svesti o kulturnoj baštini. Ključne reči: Vatinski pršljenak, vinčansko pismo, baština, pseudoarheologija, javnost. Od osamdesetih godina prošlog veka naovamo u pseudonaučnim krugovima se iznova promoviše ideja najstarije pismenosti koja potiče sa naših prostora i kojom se dokazuje kulturni kontinuitet, autohtonost Slovena na Balkanu i supe-* Ovaj članak je rezultat rada na projektu " Društvo, duhovno-materijalna kultura i komunikacije u praistoriji i ranoj istoriji Balkana " (br. 177012), koji finansira Ministar-stvo prosvete, nauke i tehnološkog razvoja Republike Srbije. Zahvaljujem se na pomoći koju su mi prilikom pisanja ovog rada pružili prof. dr Aleksandar Palavestra, doc. dr Marija Ljuština i mr Dragan Jovanović.
НАРОДНИ МУЗЕЈ БЕОГРАД MUSÉE NATIONAL DE BELGRADE 2017 оригиналан научни рад ЗБОРНИК НАРОДНОГ МУЗЕ... more НАРОДНИ МУЗЕЈ БЕОГРАД MUSÉE NATIONAL DE BELGRADE 2017 оригиналан научни рад ЗБОРНИК НАРОДНОГ МУЗЕЈА XXIII-1/2017 Археологија УДК 903.23"6343"(497.11) Примљено: 3. март 2017. Прихваћено: 22. мај 2017. 123-133 Јасна Б. ВУКОВИЋ Универзитет у Београду, Филозофски факултет -Одељење за археологију ПОПРАВКЕ И ПРОДУЖЕНА УПОТРЕБА КЕРАМИЧКИХ ПОСУДА: ПРИМЕР РАНОНЕОЛИТСКЕ ЗДЕЛЕ С КОВАЧКИХ ЊИВА * Апстракт: У раду је приказана здела чије је дно, пошто је поломљено током употребе, заравњено, чиме је продужен њен употребни век. Размотрен је изглед очуваних абразивних трагова и реконструисана је активност током које су настали. Претпостављено је да је здела поправљена услед недостатка нових посуда, што је последица сезонске израде керамике, типичне за неспецијализовану производњу. Кључне речи: здела, абразија, поправка, продужен употребни век, Ковачке њиве, рани неолит * Овај чланак је резултат рада на пројекту Археологија Србије: културни идентитет, интеграциони фактори, технолошки процеси и улога централног Балкана у развоју европске праисторије (177020), који финансира Министарство просвете, науке и технолошког развоја Републике Србије.
Apstrakt: U radu su razmotreni odnos između studija keramike i primene metoda prirodnih nauka u ... more Apstrakt: U radu su razmotreni odnos između studija keramike i primene metoda prirodnih nauka u keramologiji kroz istoriju discipline, postojanje nerazumevanja izme-đu stručnjaka prirodnih nauka i arheologa i njegovim posledicama, kao i ograničenja metoda prirodnih nauka u odgovoru na arheološke probleme. Ukazano je na potrebu za čvršćim interdisciplinarnim istraživanjima, sa precizno definisanim teorijskim okvirom i jasno formulisanim istraživačkim pitanjima i hipotezama. Ključne reči: arheometrija, keramika, istorija discipline, arheološka interpretacija Od samih početaka arheologije keramika je prepoznata kao vrsta nalaza koja je hronološki osetljiva i stoga pogodna za datovanje, formiranje relativno-hro-noloških šema i razmatranje kulturne pripadnosti, migracija ili širenja kulturnih uticaja. Razvojem keramičkih studija ubrzo je sa ovih kulturno-istorijskih po-zicija u proučavanje keramike uveden čitav niz tema, pa one danas uključuju razmatranje ekonomije, stila, identiteta, funkcije itd. (detaljnije u: Vuković, u štampi). Usložnjavanju i proširivanju tema u keramologiji svakako je doprinela i primena metoda prirodnih nauka, posebno zahvaljujući njihovom ubrzanom razvoju tokom druge polovine XX veka. Istovremeno, u arheologiji uopšte, pa i u okviru studija keramike, to je za posledicu imalo i pojavu tenzija i nerazu-mevanja između zagovornika " tvrde " nauke koji smatraju da samo ona vodi objektivnom saznanju i onih koji u tome vide dehumanizaciju arheologije (cf. * Ovaj članak je rezultat rada na projektu 177012 koji finansira Ministarstvo prosve-te, nauke i tehnološkog razvoja Republike Srbije. On predstavlja dopunjenu i proširenu verziju istoimenog saopštenja s konferencije " Srpska arheologija između teorije i činjenica V – Arheologija između artefakata i ekofakata " , održane 1–2. aprila 2017. godine na Filozofskom fakultetu u Beogradu.
Scientific Reports, 2017
Since their domestication in the Mediterranean zone of Southwest Asia in the eighth millennium BC... more Since their domestication in the Mediterranean zone of Southwest Asia in the eighth millennium BC, sheep, goats, pigs and cattle have been remarkably successful in colonizing a broad variety of environments. The initial steps in this process can be traced back to the dispersal of farming groups into the interior of the Balkans in the early sixth millennium BC, who were the first to introduce Mediterranean livestock beyond its natural climatic range. Here, we combine analysis of biomolecular and isotopic compositions of lipids preserved in prehistoric pottery with faunal analyses of taxonomic composition from the earliest farming sites in southeast Europe to reconstruct this pivotal event in the early history of animal husbandry. We observe a marked divergence between the (sub)Mediterranean and temperate regions of Southeast Europe, and in particular a significant increase of dairying in the biochemical record coupled with a shift to cattle and wild fauna at most sites north of the Balkan mountain range. The findings strongly suggest that dairying was crucial for the expansion of the earliest farming system beyond its native bioclimatic zone.
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Books by Jasna Vukovic
Edited books by Jasna Vukovic
Papers by Jasna Vukovic
Danube burned suddenly. The daub sealed the interior of the three-room structure and preserved its contents as they stood in the 46th century BC. The building was preserved so well that the details of its interior can be reconstructed. On the floor, under thick layers of destruction, ovens, querns, and deposits of artefacts and ecofacts were discovered, capturing a moment in time. The systematic retrieval of remarkably well-preserved plant macro-remains and other materials, and subsequent analyses, offer new information about practices such as food processing and storage and the use of space towards the end of the occupation of the site. In this article, we present a detailed examination of the interior architecture, and of finds of ceramics, stone, plant and animal remains within each of the three rooms of Building 01/06. Our detailed contextual analysis of the building’s internal configuration and of its contents, coupled with the precise dating of organic material, provides new data for the interpretation of a Vinča-style building and its use.
correlation has been established between the representations ascribed as male and massive bangle bracelets and belts, indicating that adult male individuals of higher status were marked out by the number of bangles and the way of wearing the belt. A similar suggestion is proposed concerning the large-size figurines, marked with incisions perhaps representing tattoo marks, with looser breasts, indicating the possibility that older women obtained higher social status than the young ones. It is worth noting that in the case of the Vinča figurines little attention is paid to the representation of hair style, although it has been established
that in the preindustrial societies, hair is an important indicator of social
status, even more than jewellery. Hair length, specific hair styles, as well as various ornaments placed here, indicate sex/gender and social differences, various group and individual identities, as well as aesthetic ideas. Two heads from Čukar, as well as the one from Predionica, perform specific hair styles – hair shorter, reaching just below ears, and the crown is shaven. Bearing in mind that these figurines may show portrait characteristics, it may be suggested that these individuals may have achieved higher social status
objects, only vessels have been analyzed. Several figurines excavated at the site of Pavlovac-
Čukar, however, exhibit traces of use – damage in the form of different kinds of abrasion.
The traces on the leg of a realistically modeled figurine (fig. 1) are present in the form
of deep grooves of a triangular cross-section. The sides of the grooves are smooth and flattened.
According to the barely visible channels parallel to the vertical axis of the tool, the
movement in which the tool was used was in the up-down direction. Also, on the left lateral
side, the original surface is worn out and removed. Such damage does not exist on the right
side, suggesting that the tool was held slightly obliquely, so that the pressure of the abrasive
movement was higher on the left side of the tool. Another figurine leg (fig. 2) exhibits similar
grooves on its back side. The traces on both tools suggest that they were used in the process
of smoothing, finishing, and/or sharpening of wooden/bone tools, possibly awls. Small
grooves and channels (with pedestalled temper) on the upper part of a columnar figurine
(fig. 3) are harder to interpret. Fragment of a figurine representing a female with incised
clothes/ornaments (fig. 4) exhibits an abraded patch on its belly: at the beginning of the
damaged zone, the traces are especially intensive and are manifested by parallel deep diagonal
notches. The figurine tool could have been used in the processes such as scraping or flattening
some hard material. Finally, the small figurine shown in fig. 5 exhibits abraded base
and head, with flattened sand temper, indicating use over some hard material.
Five figurines from Pavlovac with traces of use open new questions related to the meaning
and function of the figurines during the Late Neolithic. They were recycled after the
breaking and were probably used in everyday activities. This further leads to the conclusion
that the primary function of the figurines (symbolic or ritual) was not long-lasting. This
further underlines the possibility that they were the objects with a single-use, or disposable
after they fulfilled their designated role. The considerations about the traces of use on the
figurines are still lacking, so the specimens from Čukar reveal an urgent need for further research
in this field.
of the Golden Past, considered to be the origin of the European civilization, are particularly present in the „grey zone“: the public sphere, facilitated through media. All these narratives are based upon the preconception that in the Neolithic collections the representations of women dominate. The results of the preliminary analyses of gender representation in Neolithic assemblages have proven that the claims of women’s dominance are ill-founded, and emphasized
once more the significant presence, or even dominance of asexual figurines. On the other hand, the criteria for identification have shown to be unreliable, raising the question of usefulness of such attempts, as well as a number of new questions. Primarily, the role and meaning of the presence/absence of secondary sex attributes, their correlation to age, as well as possible regional differences in meaning and function of figurines are discussed.