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Sam van Schaik

The British Library, Endangered Archives Programme, Head

The British Library, IDP: The Silk Road Online, Faculty Member

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I work at the British Library, as Head of the Endangered Archives Programme. I previously worked at the International Dunhuang Project, as Research Project Manager and lead researcher of various projects including Beyond Boundaries: Religion, Region, Language and the State (ERC), Tibetan Zen (British Academy), Tibetan and Chinese Paleography (Leverhulme), and the Tibetan Tantric Manuscripts from Dunhuang (AHRC). I received my PhD in Tibetan Studies from the University of Manchester in 2000.

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Books by Sam van Schaik

Buddhist Magic: Divination, Healing, and Enchantment Through the Ages

[Preview only] As far back as we can see in the historical record, Buddhist monks, nuns, and othe... more [Preview only] As far back as we can see in the historical record, Buddhist monks, nuns, and other ritual specialists have offered services including healing, divination, rain making, aggressive magic, and love magic to local clients. Studying this history, scholar Sam van Schaik concludes that magic and healing have played a key role in Buddhism’s flourishing, yet they have rarely been studied in academic circles or by Western practitioners. The exclusion of magical practices and powers from most discussions of Buddhism in the modern era can be seen as part of the appropriation of Buddhism by Westerners, as well as an effect of modernization movements within Asian Buddhism. However, if we are to understand the way Buddhism has worked in the past, the way it still works now in many societies, and the way it can work in the future, we need to examine these overlooked aspects of Buddhist practice.

The Spirit of Zen

[Preview only] An exploration of the history and essence of Zen, based on a new translation of on... more [Preview only] An exploration of the history and essence of Zen, based on a new translation of one of the earliest surviving collections of teachings by Zen masters. These teachings, titled The Masters and Students of the Lanka, were discovered in a sealed cave on the old Silk Road, in modern Gansu, China, in the early twentieth century. All more than a thousand years old, the manuscripts have sometimes been called the Buddhist Dead Sea Scrolls, and their translation has opened a new window onto the history of Buddhism.

The Spirit of Tibetan Buddhism

[Preview only] In The Spirit of Tibetan Buddhism Sam van Schaik offers an attractive and clear se... more [Preview only] In The Spirit of Tibetan Buddhism Sam van Schaik offers an attractive and clear selection of the fundamental precepts of the major Tibetan Buddhist traditions. Those wishing to understand the essentials of Tibetan spiritual culture will find in these pages an outstanding point of entry. (Matthew Kapstein, Directeur d’études, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes)

Tibetan Zen: Discovering a Lost Tradition

https://www.shambhala.com/tibetan-zen-3348.html, 2015

Until the early twentieth century, hardly any traces of the Tibetan tradition of Chinese Chan Bud... more Until the early twentieth century, hardly any traces of the Tibetan tradition of Chinese Chan Buddhism, or Zen, remained. Then the discovery of a sealed cave in Dunhuang, full of manuscripts in various languages dating from the first millennium CE, transformed our understanding of early Zen. This book translates some of the earliest surviving Tibetan Zen manuscripts preserved in Dunhuang. The translations illuminate different aspects of the Zen tradition, with brief introductions that not only discuss the roles of ritual, debate, lineage, and meditation in the early Zen tradition but also explain how these texts were embedded in actual practices.

The Tibetan Chan Manuscripts

A Complete Descriptive Catalogue of Tibetan Chan Texts in the Dunhuang Manuscript Collections., 2014

[Edited proofs] A catalogue of the Tibetan manuscripts associated with Chan (Zen) Buddhism found ... more

The Sakya School of Tibetan Buddhism

[Preview only] Since its 1976 publication in Tibetan, Dhongthog Rinpoche’s history of the Sakya s... more [Preview only] Since its 1976 publication in Tibetan, Dhongthog Rinpoche’s history of the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism has been a key reference for specialists in Tibetan studies. Now English readers can consult it as well through Sam van Schaik’s fully annotated and accessible translation. The book begins by examining the development of Buddhism in India and Tibet, setting the scene for the Khon family’s establishment of the Sakya school in the eleventh century. Rinpoche subsequently provides accounts of the transmission of the Lamdre (the heart of Sakya contemplative practice and other major streams of esoteric instruction) and the Ngor and Tshar branches of the Sakya tradition. Highlights also include surveys of great Sakya and nonsectarian masters such as Rongtongpa, Gorampa, Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, and Khyentse Chokyi Lodro. This traditional history, compiled both from earlier histories and from the author's direct connection to masters of the tradition, is an enormously valuable resource for the study of Tibetan Buddhism.

Tibet: A History

[Preview only] Situated north of the Himalayas, Tibet is famous for its unique culture and its co... more [Preview only] Situated north of the Himalayas, Tibet is famous for its unique culture and its controversial assimilation into modern China. Yet Tibet in the twenty-first century can only be properly understood in the context of its extraordinary history. Sam van Schaik brings the history of Tibet to life by telling the stories of the people involved, from the glory days of the Tibetan empire in the seventh century through to the present day. He explores the emergence of Tibetan Buddhism and the rise of the Dalai Lamas, Tibet's entanglement in the "Great Game" in the early twentieth century, its submission to Chinese Communist rule in the 1950s, and the troubled times of recent decades.

Manuscripts and Travellers: The Sino-Tibetan Documents of a Tenth-century Buddhist Pilgrim

Pilgrimage is a point at which several different spheres of activity, often considered in separat... more Pilgrimage is a point at which several different spheres of activity, often considered in separation, intersect. While the religious aspect of pilgrimage might be considered primary, pilgrimage usually involves the realms of commerce and politics as well. The manuscript that forms the basis for this book is a record of the pilgrimage of a Chinese monk in the late tenth century. The manuscript was one of thousands that were sealed in a cave in Dunhuang, in Chinese Central Asia, in the early eleventh century AD. The cave contained multitudes of Buddhist texts, and a smaller but significant amount of ephemeral material as well, including old contracts and letters. The Chinese monk who owned the manuscript was on a pilgrimage to the Buddhist holy land of India. The main part of the manuscript is a scroll containing the monk's letters of passage for his journey through Tibetan regions of what are now the Chinese provinces of Qinghai and Gansu.

$Table 6.1: Comparison of the characters 7t and JL within the same manuscript. The text on Manuscript C consists of 16 lines, with 15—18 characters in each complete line. The first line comprises the title and the last, the colophon. The title, main text and the colophon were all written by the same hand. The text was clearly executed using a calamus, like the Chinese scribbles between the Tibetan letters on Manuscript A. Although the text is complete, some of the characters are smudged or hard to read. There are a number of variant character forms, some of them with inconsistent orthography even within the same document. For example, the character “F occurs three times as #*, # and 3, the first two of which are the traditional lishu 4## forms consisting of the combination of 7+. Another example of inconsistent orthography is the character #€ which occurs twice, written as #2 and K. Below is the transcription of the text.'' The blank squares inside brack- ets [LJ[_J{_}] mean that the context and grammar imply the absence of one Aye aaocen. Akaeaantcace Cem cha. cemrce emcee Bikalea: hhaetianw knew. memettarn ars.$

Tibetan Tantric Manuscripts from Dunhuang

Since their discovery a century ago, the Dunhuang manuscripts have revolutionized the study of As... more Since their discovery a century ago, the Dunhuang manuscripts have revolutionized the study of Asian religions. Until recently, however, the rich materials relating to esoteric tantric Buddhism have been largely ignored. This volume provides an indispensable doorway into these materials. An introduction summarizes the discovery, worldwide dissemination and general character of these Tibetan treasures. The catalogue entries provide introductory discussions of the manuscripts’ contents, in addition to reordering the often scrambled folios, linking them to their long-lost counterparts in other collections, and matching them with corresponding texts in the Tibetan canon. The catalogue includes indices to Tibetan and Sanskrit titles, names and terms, as well as all Pelliot manuscripts referenced. The result is an invaluable resource for scholars of Buddhism.

Approaching the Great Perfection

[Preview only] Dzogchen, the Great Perfection, is the highest meditative practice of the Nyingma ... more [Preview only] Dzogchen, the Great Perfection, is the highest meditative practice of the Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism. Approaching the Great Perfection looks at a seminal figure of this lineage, Jigme Lingpa, an eighteenth-century scholar and meditation master whose cycle of teachings, the Longchen Nyingtig, has been handed down through generations as a complete path to enlightenment. Ten of Jigme Lingpa’s texts are presented here, along with extensive analysis by van Schaik of a core tension within Buddhism: Does enlightenment develop gradually, or does it come all at once? Though these two positions are often portrayed by modern scholars as entrenched polemical views, van Schaik explains that both tendencies are present within each of the Tibetan Buddhist schools. He demonstrates how Jigme Lingpa is a great illustration of this balancing act, using the rhetoric of both sides to propel his students along the path of the Great Perfection.

Papers by Sam van Schaik

Torma in Early Tibetan Buddhist Rituals

Recent Research on Tibet: Publications in Social Anthropology, 2026

The moulded food offerings known as torma (gtor ma) are ubiquitous in Tibetan ritual practice. To... more The moulded food offerings known as torma (gtor ma) are ubiquitous in Tibetan ritual practice. Torma are used across a wide spectrum of ritual, from magical practices to bring good fortune and destroy obstacles, to spiritual practices aimed at liberation from samsara. Usually constructed and demolished for specific ritual contexts, torma are ephemeral objects; by their nature they cannot be kept indefinitely and have not usually been collected and preserved in museum collections.

The Goddess and the Great Perfection: Exploring Ekajati’s role in Dzogchen

Journal of Tibetan Literature, 2025

In this article I explore the role that the wrathful deity Ekajati has played in the Dzogchen tea... more In this article I explore the role that the wrathful deity Ekajati has played in the Dzogchen teaching and practice of Tibetan Buddhism. Starting with Ekajati’s place in traditional Tibetan biographies, we then look at what is known of her origins, which may be in Tibet or Central Asia rather than the Indic world. Then we turn to the main topic of the article, a ninth or tenth-century Dunhuang manuscript describing a lotus mandala of female deities presided over by Ekajati. The author of this text, which translated in full at the end of the article, states that it is based on “the sutras of Dzogchen.” We look at the way Ekajati is presented in this manuscript, the earliest surviving document mentioning the goddess. This text’s connection with Dzogchen is explored as well, especially with regard to philosophical language and ritual practices that are later seen in the Seventeen Tantras. The article argues that Ekajati is one of several important elements of Tibetan Buddhist practice in the tenth century that flowed into the emerging Nyingthik (snying thig, heart essence) texts and lineages from the eleventh century onwards. Finally, we note some intriguing suggestions in the manuscript that the lotus mandala could have been intended for female practitioners, with Ekajati as their patron goddess.

The Funerary Context of Mogao Cave 17

by Sam van Schaik and Mélodie Doumy

Buddhism in Central Asia III: Impacts of Non-Buddhist Influences, Doctrines, 2023

The sealed Cave 17 in the Mogao cave complex has given us many of the most important primary sour... more The sealed Cave 17 in the Mogao cave complex has given us many of the most important primary sources for understanding Buddhist, and to some extent non-Buddhist, doctrines and practices in Eastern Central Asia, China and Tibet. The best-known theories about the original function of the cave have paid little attention to the details of Buddhist ritual practice. In this paper we reorient the approach to Cave 17 at Dunhuang towards the funerary function of the cave and its contents. We argue that we need to look at the role of the Cave 17 as a Buddhist funerary shrine for a better understanding of its contents, and put this in the context of Buddhist funerary practices involving the interment of books and other religious objects as relics in stūpas and shrines.

Chan Texts in Practice: Towards a Socio-Historical Approach to Early Chan

Journal of Chan Buddhism, 2023

Research into early Chan has relied heavily on the manuscripts found in Cave 17 in Dunhuang, whic... more Research into early Chan has relied heavily on the manuscripts found in Cave 17 in Dunhuang, which generally date from before the eleventh century. However this research has often abstracted texts from their context as part of the varied and multilingual collection that was found in the cave. Furthermore, the date, form and original use of the manuscripts containing early Chan texts is often forgotten in the discussion.

format_quoteIn the Dunhuang context, Chan meditation was indistinguishable from tantric or Pure Land practices, emphasizing practice over category.format_quote

A Tibetan Book of Spells

Bon and Naxi Manuscripts, 2023

Magical practices, such as bringing rain, repelling hail, and summoning and dispelling demons, ar... more Magical practices, such as bringing rain, repelling hail, and summoning and dispelling demons, are an important part of both Bonpo and Buddhist practice in Tibet and the Himalayan region. This chapter explores the connections between a tenth-century book of magic preserved among the Dunhuang cave manuscripts and anthropological observations of magical practices recorded in the late twentieth century. Taking some key examples from the Dunhuang manuscript, I explore how certain key points of similarity show a continuity with the repertoire of a Buddhist ritual practitioner, or a Bonpo, or in practices that cannot be easily assimilated to either tradition. I argue that it is important to point out such correspondences, even when they occur over nearly a millennium, and when the mechanism of their transmission is, as yet, unclear.

Buddhist Magic and Vajrayana

Oxford Handbook of Tantric Studies, 2022

Key elements of the Vajrayāna, or tantric Buddhism, can be traced back to some of the earliest Bu... more Key elements of the Vajrayāna, or tantric Buddhism, can be traced back to some of the earliest Buddhist scriptures, typically texts that give instructions for practices that culminate in worldly results, such as protection from supernatural beings, healing illness and curing poison, bringing rain, or ensuring the safe birth of children. These magical aspects of Buddhist practice include the recitation of spells (mantra and dhāraṇī), along with other techniques such as the delimitation of sacred space with magical items and the use of ritual gestures (mudrā). In Vajrayāna texts, these techniques are adapted to the purpose of the ultimate Buddhist goal, awakening, though their power to achieve worldly ends is also taught in many tantras.

format_quoteThree key texts reveal the heritage of Buddhist magic, showcasing evolved practices and their significance in Vajrayāna.format_quote

Travel, Love and Lost Things: The earliest Sino-Tibetan Divination Manuscript

Revue d'Etudes Tibétaines 64: A Festschrift for Dan Martin, 2022

In 2008, working for the International Dunhuang Project at the British Library, I came across a s... more In 2008, working for the International Dunhuang Project at the British
Library, I came across a set of diagrams with Tibetan writing on the
back of a Chinese scroll. The scroll had been catalogued and placed in
the sequence of Chinese manuscripts from Dunhuang (Or.8210/S.)
and thus the Tibetan side had been completely overlooked for nearly
a hundred years. Though the collections from Dunhuang are always
full of surprises, this was a big one.

The Advent of the Dharma: Religion and Rationality in the Coming of Buddhism to Tibet

The Social and the Religious in the Making of Tibetan Societies, 2022

The story of the advent of the dharma, and Tibetan Buddhist historians’ response to it reveal som... more The story of the advent of the dharma, and Tibetan Buddhist historians’ response to it reveal some of the tensions in the self-identity of Buddhists in Tibet, specifically in how Tibetans attempted to distinguish themselves as Buddhists from the tradition that came before them. In this case, the debates involved the role of intellectual thought and rationality in Buddhism.

format_quoteNel pa Pa ita criticized those promoting the sky-falling narrative, accusing them of being influenced by Bon po traditions.format_quote

A Sanskrit-Khotanese Colloquy

Medieval Multilingual Manuscripts, ed. by Michael Clarke and Máire Ní Mhaonaigh, 2022

The scroll Pelliot chinois 5538 is an exemplar of the multicultural and multilingual social setti... more The scroll Pelliot chinois 5538 is an exemplar of the multicultural and multilingual social setting of the trade routes linking India, Persia and China, popularly known as the Silk Road. The scroll, which contains a series of words and phrases in Sanskrit and Khotanese, shows how Sanskrit might have been used as a language of trans-regional and cross-community communication among the Taklamakan oasis states in the late first millennium. Phrases of practical usefulness are translated between Khotanese and Sanskrit, in the style of a phrasebook. On the other hand, the scroll is comparable to medieval European colloquies, and like them, may have been used in an educational setting.

The Internalisation of the Vajrasana

Precious Treasures from the Diamond Throne, 2021

As the site of Śākyamuni’s awakening, the vajrāsana at Bodhgayā was one of the main objects of wo... more As the site of Śākyamuni’s awakening, the vajrāsana at Bodhgayā was one of the main objects of worship. This paper investigates the fertile environment for the transmission and translation of Buddhist rituals provided by Bodhgayā in the 11th and 12th centuries. It looks at the collections of tantric ritual practice (sādhana) compiled and translated at
Bodhgayā by Tibetan pilgrims in collaboration with local Indian Buddhist tantrikas. Heading these collections is a sādhana for the Vajrāsana Buddha, an imaginative recreation of the Śākyamuni on the vajra throne at Bodhgayā. Showing how the sādhana visualisation corresponds to descriptions of the vajra throne by earlier pilgrims such as Xuanzang, I argue that the sādhana served as a portable recreation of the act of pilgrimage and worship.