Guidelines by Paul A Garber
A committee of field primatologists representing major primatological societies and organizations... more A committee of field primatologists representing major primatological societies and organizations from Africa, Asia, Europe, and North, Central, and South America have crafted a "code of best practices" to help field primatologists navigate the contemporary ethical landscape.
Papers by Paul A Garber
Travel Patterns and Spatial Mapping in Nicaraguan Mantled Howler Monkeys (Alouatta palliata)
Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects
SUMMARY In this study, we examined questions of spatial memory and the travel routestaken by Nica... more SUMMARY In this study, we examined questions of spatial memory and the travel routestaken by Nicaraguan mantled howler monkeys ( Alouatta palliata ) when mov-ing between major feeding and resting sites. Studies of primate foraging andrangingbehaviorindicateevidenceofgoal-directedtravelandrelativelystraight-line movement between sequential feeding sites. In the case of mantled howlerson BCI, Panama, Milton (1980) has argued that over the course of severalweeks, group members center their feeding, resting, and ranging activities ona small set of pivotal trees that are visited several times daily. The degree towhich howlers use topological (route-based) spatial representations or geomet-ric (coordinate-based) spatial representations to locate and revisit these feedingand resting sites remains unclear.In order to address questions concerning goal-directed travel and spatialmemory, we mapped the travel routes taken by a troop of 26–29 mantledhowlersinhabitingEstaci´onBiol´ogicadeOmetepelocatedonIsladeOmetepe,Nicaragua. Behavioral data were collected during July and August 2002. Overthe course of 15 days and 103 h of observation, all trees the howlers wereobserved to travel, feed, and rest in were marked (
Foraging networks and social tolerance in a cooperatively breeding primate ( Callithrix jacchus )
Journal of Animal Ecology, 2021
1. Within-group competition over food resources can be a major cost of social living. In the wild... more 1. Within-group competition over food resources can be a major cost of social living. In the wild, foragers are confronted with social (e.g. hierarchical rank) and ecological (e.g. food availability and distribution) challenges that affect their foraging decisions and feeding success. Exhibiting prosocial behaviors, such as tolerance at feeding sites, can benefit group members by developing affiliative social relationships, enhancing access to resources and maximizing fitness. 2. We examined social tolerance at feeding sites in Callithrix jacchus, a cooperatively breeding primate species. We investigated the set of social (rank, age, sex) and ecological (food availability) factors that influence the structure and dynamics of within-group foraging association networks. 3. We designed and conducted an experimental field study of four wild groups of common marmosets in which we controlled food distribution (concentrated or scattered) and productivity (high, medium, or low food rewards). Then, we used social network analyses to assess the number and strength of foraging associations among group members, their effects on individual food consumption, and whether recent experiences with conspecifics during foraging affected subsequent associations. 4. Overall, common marmoset foraging association networks were cohesive, as group members jointly occupied feeding sites. The number and strength of associations varied depending on the ecological context. Associations were stronger during conditions in which food was concentrated at a single site. Individuals obtained greater access to food resources when sharing a feeding site with conspecifics, but once a food item was obtained, the forager moved to a nearby tree and consumed it away from others. Additionally, the strength of previous foraging associations and subsequent levels of social tolerance at feeding sites were positively related, a relationship compatible with the ability of memorizing associations over time and recalling the information in future decision-making. 5. In sum, marmosets adjusted their partner choices and the strength of foraging associations in response to food availability. They exhibited increased social tolerance at feeding sites during conditions in which opportunities for contest competition were expected to be greatest. These cooperative breeding primates appear to mutually benefit by maintaining cohesive and strong affiliative relationships, and by increasing opportunities for coordinated behavior and offspring survival.
Primates, 2019
Since its initial discovery in 2010 in the Gaoligong Mountains on the Sino-Myanmar border, there ... more Since its initial discovery in 2010 in the Gaoligong Mountains on the Sino-Myanmar border, there remains no direct information on the feeding habits of the black snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus strykeri). This species is on the verge of extinction, with an estimated remaining population of < 400 individuals. Due to difficulties in following these monkeys across steep mountainous terrain, during 203 observation days (September 2015-January 2017) we recorded 80 h of behavioral records of a wild population (Luoma group). Our preliminary results identified 14 plant species and four lichen species consumed by the monkeys. In addition, we provided the only two captive individuals of this species with a cafeteria diet composed of > 600 wild-collected plant species that were gathered from known R. strykeri habitats to determine which plant species and food items were considered palatable. Our results indicate that the captive monkeys freely consumed young and mature leaves, fruits/seeds, buds, flowers, twigs, and bark from 170 different species of trees, bushes, and herbs representing 76 genera and 41 plant families, as well as 15 species of lichen. All foods consumed by the wild monkeys were also consumed by the captive individuals. Food plants consumed by R. strykeri were found principally in intact subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests and hemlock-broadleaf mixed forests at an altitude of 2200-3000 m. Strict enforcement of habitat protection and access to resources across this elevation zone appear to be essential for the conservation and survivorship of this critically endangered primate.
Finding Fruit in a Tropical Rainforest
Spatial Analysis in Field Primatology
Introduction: Conservation and Management Policies
Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects
Introduction: Population Responses to Disturbance
Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects
Natural catastrophic events such as hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, volcanic activity, and disea... more Natural catastrophic events such as hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, volcanic activity, and disease as well as extensive deforestation caused by humans have critical impacts on primate population viability. Natural and human-induced destruction results in habitat loss and fragmentation, population reduction, and in demographic, social, and reproductive disruption. Primate populations can persist in fragmented landscapes if remnant forest fragments are large enough to provide sufficient resources and expand in area through regeneration over time. The chapters in this section examine issues of primate behavior, ecology, diet, and mating strategies from different perspectives and offer important research methods for evaluating behavioral plasticity and the response of primate species to habitat contraction and fragmentation, resulting from natural or artificial causes. Demographic data on primate populations in continuous forests with minimal human disturbance provide needed baseline information about species’
Within- and Between-Site Variability in Moustached Tamarin (Saguinus mystax) Positional Behavior during Food Procurement
Primate Locomotion, 1998
WITHIN-AND BETWEEN-SITE VARIABILITY IN MOUSTACHED TAMARIN (SAGUINUS MYSTAX) POSITIONAL BEHAVIOR D... more WITHIN-AND BETWEEN-SITE VARIABILITY IN MOUSTACHED TAMARIN (SAGUINUS MYSTAX) POSITIONAL BEHAVIOR DURING FOOD PROCUREMENT Paul A. Garber Department of Anthropology 109 Davenport Hall University of Illinois Urbana, Illinois 61801 1. ...
Behavioral strategies for meeting nutritional demands across seasons and life history stages in the Mexican black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra)
American journal of primatology, Jan 8, 2015
Tamarins are reported to live in small multimale-multifemale groups characterized by a single bre... more Tamarins are reported to live in small multimale-multifemale groups characterized by a single breeding female. Here we present information on the composition and genetic relatedness of individuals in 12 wild-trapped groups of Weddell's saddleback tamarins (Saguinus weddelli) from northern Bolivia to determine if groups are best described as nuclear or extended families suggesting social monogamy or whether groups contain several unrelated same sex adults indicative of social polyandry/polygyny. Mean group size was 6.25 including an average of 2.16 adult males (range 1-4) and 2.08 adult females (1-3). No group contained only one adult male and one adult female and 25% of groups contained two parous females. We estimated the genetic relatedness among individuals using 13 polymorphic microsatellite markers. Across the population, mean relatedness was low and not significantly different among adult males versus among adult females, suggesting that both sexes disperse from their nata...
Neotropical Primates, 2012
Several species of callitrichines (tamarins, marmosets, and callimicos) are reported to frequentl... more Several species of callitrichines (tamarins, marmosets, and callimicos) are reported to frequently leap between vertical supports when foraging and traveling in the forest understory. In the present study, we examine trunk-to-trunk leaping in a wild group of four habituated adult saddleback tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli) in northern Bolivia. From June through July, 2011 we analyzed 200 leaps in which the tamarins moved between vertical supports. On average, takeoff height was 4.1 m (±1.3 m, range 1-7.5 m). During the airborne phase of travel the monkeys lost an average of 0.5 m (±0.5 m) at contact with the landing support, and the mean distance leapt was 1.4 m (± 0.7 m). We found no correlation between the diameter at breast height (DBH) of landing and takeoff supports, and either the distance leapt or height gained/lost during leaping. Across callitrichine taxa, it appears that ecological distinctions in diet, patterns of habitat utilization, and predator avoidance strategies have played an important role in understanding the frequency and context of trunk-to-trunk leaping behavior.
Howler Monkeys Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation
Microbial ecology, Jan 19, 2014
For most mammals, including nonhuman primates, diet composition varies temporally in response to ... more For most mammals, including nonhuman primates, diet composition varies temporally in response to differences in food availability. Because diet influences gut microbiota composition, it is likely that the gut microbiota of wild mammals varies in response to seasonal changes in feeding patterns. Such variation may affect host digestive efficiency and, ultimately, host nutrition. In this study, we investigate the temporal variation in diet and gut microbiota composition and function in two groups (N = 13 individuals) of wild Mexican black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) over a 10-month period in Palenque National Park, Mexico. Temporal changes in the relative abundances of individual bacterial taxa were strongly correlated with changes in host diet. For example, the relative abundance of Ruminococcaceae was highest during periods when energy intake was lowest, and the relative abundance of Butyricicoccus was highest when young leaves and unripe fruit accounted for 68 % of the diet. Ad...
Primates, 1993
In this paper we examine patterns of group spacing and habitat utilization in neighboring groups ... more In this paper we examine patterns of group spacing and habitat utilization in neighboring groups of marked free-ranging moustached tamarin monkeys (Saguinus mystax) inhabiting Padre Isla, a small island in the Amazon Basin of northeastern Peru, and describe the set of behavioral mechanisms used by tarnarins to maintain the spatial isolation and social integrity of individual groups. Specifically, we address a series of questions regarding the importance of resource defense, mate defense, and territorial defense in intergroup interactions. From June through November 1990, we recorded 67 intergroup interactions involving members of our two main study groups. These interactions occurred at a rate of .14/observation hour and were of two general types. Vocal battles averaged 18 min in duration and were characterized by a series of high frequency, short syllable, long calls that were exchanged between groups separated by distances of greater than 25 m. Aggressive encounters averaged 26 min in duration and involved visual contact, alarm calls, scent marking, and sequences of chases and retreats. Intergroup confrontations did not cluster around the perimeter of a group's home range, and there was no evidence that moustached tamarins patrolled range borders. Our data indicate that 35~ of aggressive encounters occurred in the vicinity of major feeding trees. Priority access to these sites is likely to have an important influence on tamarin foraging success. Mate defense and the exploration of new breeding opportunities also appear to be important functions of intergroup conflicts. Not only did the frequency of aggressive encounters increase during breeding periods, but three-fourths of all observed copulations occurred during or within 30 min of an encounter. Given the high degree of reproductive competition reported among tamarin females and the time and energy group members devote to intergroup aggression, maintaining access to a stable home range and the resources contained within that range appear to be critical functions of moustached tamarin social interactions.
Rain-forest canopy-connectivity and habitat selection by a small neotropical primate, Geoffroy's tamarin (Saguinus geoffroyi)
Journal of Tropical Ecology, 2010
:Wild populations of a small neotropical primate, Geoffroy's tamarin (Saguinus geoffroyi), we... more :Wild populations of a small neotropical primate, Geoffroy's tamarin (Saguinus geoffroyi), were studied through 30-s instantaneous observational sampling to identify different canopy habitats used by this tamarin. Tree and shrub canopies were sampled in randomly selected plots and in nearby plots that tamarins were observed to use in the forests of Agua Clara, Panama (28 d, 59 100-m2 plots, 32.25 h of tamarin observations, 27 tamarins in total), and in the nearby forests of Barro Colorado Island (49 d, 29 100-m2 plots, 29.6 h of tamarin observations, 14 tamarins in total). Light penetration through the canopy, ambient temperature and humidity, presence of other primates, stem diameters, plant life-forms, distribution of woody flora, abundance of fleshy fruits and arthropods typically consumed by tamarins and abundance of thorny vegetation and biting arthropods in plots used by tamarins were compared with control plots. Habitats used by tamarins had significantly shorter distances between adjacent tree canopies and between canopies and the ground. There was a random distribution of large insects and fleshy fruits that tamarins are known to eat. Habitat selection by tamarins may not be influenced by spiny vegetation, but tamarins may avoid areas with abundant hooked thorns and blood-sucking arthropods. Mobility along runways in various tiers of a rain-forest canopy may be of primary importance, with local abundance of food being a secondary consideration in habitat selection by this small primate.
Foraging and Spatial Memory in Wild Weddell’s Saddleback Tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli) When Moving Between Distant and Out-of-Sight Goals
International Journal of Primatology, 2012
ABSTRACT Two main types of cognitive maps, route-based and coordinate-based, have been proposed t... more ABSTRACT Two main types of cognitive maps, route-based and coordinate-based, have been proposed to explain how animals navigate through their environments. We examined patterns of feeding and ranging in Weddell’s saddleback tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis weddelli) in northern Bolivia to assess which type of cognitive map best explains the tamarins’ movement patterns in large-scale space, e.g., when moving between distant and out-of-sight goals. We observed the tamarins for 236 h over the course of 32 d and used a GPS unit to record the location of nighttime sleeping sites and feeding trees and the locations of individuals at 10-min intervals. Based on an evaluation of 109 travel segments of &gt;20 m in which the monkeys traveled from the tree of one major feeding species to another without stopping to rest, forage for insects, or interact with neighbors, we calculated a circuity index (actual distance traveled divided by the straight-line distance) of 1.43. We also plotted the monkeys’ daily movement patterns using GIS software. These analyses showed that tamarin travel was not random, that a limited set of route segments (N = 29) was reused on multiple occasions, and that certain areas of the forest appeared to serve as switch points (N = 9) where the monkeys reoriented travel. These results support the contention that the tamarins encoded the spatial relationships among many feeding and sleeping sites in their home range, and navigated in large-scale space using a route-based spatial representation. These results are consistent with those reported for a variety of primate taxa, suggesting that many primate species reuse a familiar set of travel routes and switch points to orient in large-scale space.
Folia Primatologica, 1997
Despite a large body of data on diet and ranging patterns in prosimians, monkeys and apes, little... more Despite a large body of data on diet and ranging patterns in prosimians, monkeys and apes, little is known regarding the types of information that non-human primates use when making foraging decisions. In a series of controlled field experiments, we tested the ability of wild capuchins (Cebus capucinus) at La Suerte Biological Research Station in north-eastern Costa Rica to remember the spatial positions of 13 feeding platforms and use olfactory and visual cues to identify baited (real bananas) versus sham (plastic bananas) feeding sites. The results indicate that when ‘place’ was predictable, the capuchins learned the spatial locations of food and non-food sites rapidly (one-trial learning). In a second experiment, the positions of baited feeding sites were random. In the absence of other information, the capuchins used the presence of a local landmark cue (yellow block) placed at reward platforms to select feeding sites. In a final experiment, there was evidence that expectations ...
Folia Primatologica, 1984
A preliminary field study was conducted on moustached tamarin monkeys (Saguinus mystax) inhabitin... more A preliminary field study was conducted on moustached tamarin monkeys (Saguinus mystax) inhabiting Padre Isla, a small island in the Amazon Basin of northeastern Peru. Data presented indicate that groups are generally composed of 3-8 individuals including a single breeding female, 1-3 reproductively active males, nonreproductive adult females, and offspring. Migration of adults and subadults into and out of established groups is common, and it is unlikely that S. mystax social units represent nuclear or extended families. It is argued that rather than tending towards monogamy, the reproductive biology and mating activities of moustached tamarins are better understood in terms of a communal breeding system. In the case of this and perhaps other callitrichid species, such a system appears to involve female promiscuity and the participation of reproductively active adult male group members in caring for the young. The hypothesis that there is an important relationship between the numbe...
Experimental field study of hand preference in wild black-horned (Cebus nigritus) and white-faced (Cebus capucinus) capuchins: evidence for individual and species differences
Animal Cognition, 2008
In this experimental field investigation, we compare the degree to which wild capuchins in Brazil... more In this experimental field investigation, we compare the degree to which wild capuchins in Brazil (Cebus nigritus) and Costa Rica (Cebus capucinus) exhibit individual- and population-level handedness during three visually-guided tasks. These tasks required reaching to remove a large leaf covering a hidden food reward, seizing the food reward, and manipulating a tool (pulling a wooden dowel) in order to obtain access to an embedded food reward. Studies in some populations of captive capuchins indicate evidence for both individual hand preferences and population-level handedness. In this study, six of eight wild C. capucinus and six of seven wild C. nigritus exhibited a significant hand preference during individual tasks, but no individual exhibited a consistent preference across all three tasks. Task-specialization, or the tendency for most individuals in the same group or population to use the same hand to accomplish a particular task, also was evaluated. Cebus nigritus showed a significant bias toward the use of the right hand in removing the leaf. Although the number of individual capuchins in both species that manipulated the dowels was limited (N = 7), each individual that manipulated the dowels in eight or more instances had a positive handedness index, suggesting a greater use of the right hand to accomplish this task. Overall, our results provide preliminary support for individual- and population-level handedness in wild capuchin monkeys.
American Journal of Primatology, 2010
In 1993 and 1999, with the assistance of a Nicaraguan family, we founded La Suerte Biological Res... more In 1993 and 1999, with the assistance of a Nicaraguan family, we founded La Suerte Biological Research Station in northeastern Costa Rica and Ometepe Biological Research Station in southern Nicaragua as a privately owned conservation-oriented business. Our goal was to develop a program of sustainable community ecology focused on education, research, and the conservation of primates and tropical forests. In order to accomplish this we developed field courses in which undergraduate and graduate students conduct scientific research, experience local cultures, and learn about conservation. Over 120 of these students have received doctoral degrees or are currently in graduate programs. Four doctoral dissertations, several MA theses, and some 20 scientific articles have been published based on research conducted at our field stations. In order to achieve our long-term goals of preserving the environment, we also needed to engage directly with local communities to address their needs and concerns. To this end, we developed a series of community-based initiatives related to health care, bilingual education, and conservation education using traditional and on-line teaching tools. In this article, we describe our efforts in Costa Rica and Nicaragua teaching conservation-oriented field courses and working with the local human communities. Building upon these experiences, we outline a set of ethical considerations and responsibilities for private reserves, conservation-oriented businesses, NGOs, and conservancies that help integrate members of the local community as stakeholders in conservation. Am.
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Guidelines by Paul A Garber
Papers by Paul A Garber