Papers by Sheikh Zahid
Slavery & Abolition Journal, Routledge, 2026
This article explores Begar (forced labour) as a key instrument in the expansion and consolidatio... more This article explores Begar (forced labour) as a key instrument in the expansion and consolidation of the Dogra State of Jammu and Kashmir during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Moving beyond traditional military narratives, it argues that Dogra territorial growth, particularly in the frontier regions of Ladakh, Baltistan, Gilgit and other mountainous frontier regions, depended not only on armed campaigns but also on the systematic mobilization of forced labour. Begar served as a significant logistical mechanism, enabling the movement of troops, transport of supplies and the construction of roads, forts and administrative infrastructure in a geographically challenging and environmentally constrained terrain. The study highlights how geographical isolation, rugged topography and limited economic resources shaped the Dogra State's sustained reliance on compulsory labour extraction, showing that Begar was not a temporary wartime necessity, but an organized practice of governance embedded in the everyday functioning of frontier administration and military control. Despite periodic criticism and reformist pressures, particularly under British influence, the system continued well into the twentieth century, until its official abolition in the 1920s, with coercive practices continuing in modified forms thereafter till the accession of the state with the Indian Union.
Rising Kashmir, 2025
Surviving the Chill: How Kashmiris Learned to Live with Winter
It is often said that necessity ... more Surviving the Chill: How Kashmiris Learned to Live with Winter
It is often said that necessity is the mother of invention, and nowhere does this saying hold truer than in Kashmir. From ancient times, when early humans lived in pits and caves, to the present era of modern heating appliances, the people of Kashmir have continuously developed unique ways to survive some of the harshest winters in the Indian subcontinent. This long journey of adaptation, innovation, and resilience has unfolded over thousands of years. Winter has not merely been a season here—it has been a force that shaped lifestyle, architecture, social practices, and technological creativity. It taught the common Kashmiri how to combat cold, and over time, Kashmiris developed an entire range of heating techniques that make them distinct among other cold-climate communities of South Asia.
Human mastery of fire dates back nearly 1.5 to 2 million years, with clear evidence from Swartkrans in South Africa and sites in Kenya. In the Indian subcontinent, the earliest signs of controlled fire, discovered at the Main Belan archaeological site in Uttar Pradesh, date to around 50,000–55,000 years ago. While fire became central to human survival everywhere, the people of Kashmir adapted it in particularly innovative ways. One of the earliest examples is the Daan or Danbur, the traditional hearth that served Kashmiri households for centuries. It was far more than a cooking place: it provided heat, allowed water to be boiled in clay or copper tanks known as mat’e, and acted as the very centre of domestic life during long frozen months. For generations, the Daan remained the primary source of warmth inside traditional Kashmiri homes.
Building upon this deep historical background, it becomes clear that fire was not only a technological achievement but also a cultural anchor. In Kashmir’s harsh winters—where temperatures often dropped drastically and snow covered the landscape for weeks—the Daan offered a space for family interaction, storytelling, and everyday living. It shaped architectural patterns, influenced social habits, and became inseparable from the rhythm of rural and urban life. Even as modern heating methods emerged, the memory of the Daan continued to symbolize warmth, community, and continuity in Kashmiri tradition.
As society evolved, Kashmiris introduced another device—the Kangri, a portable firepot woven from wicker and filled with glowing embers. The Kangri is not just a heating tool; it is a cultural symbol, woven into everyday winter life. It can be tucked beneath the pheran, held inside blankets, or placed under the feet—practices rarely seen in any other cold region. This distinctive manoeuvring of the kangri was also noted by G. T. Vigne in the 19th century. The finest Kangris traditionally came from Chrar-e-Sharief, Bandipora, and Kulgam. Although we lack precise evidence about when Kangris came into use, historical references show that by the 15th century they were already widespread. When Sheikh-ul-Alam (Nund Rishi) passed away around 1438, tradition records that he was buried with a Chrar-Kangri, signalling its deep cultural importance even at that time.
Another method to keep warm was the hamam, essentially an improvisation of the Turkish bath. As Saleem Beg, convener of the Jammu & Kashmir chapter of INTACH, notes, “The hamam has Turkish origins but Kashmir was never ruled by Turks. Since the Afghans who ruled Kashmir took pride in their Turkic origins, we can say that the hamam’s origins lie in Central Asia.” The hamam, a stone-floored heating system used mostly by well-off families and in mosques, is heated from below by firewood, allowing it to radiate warmth for hours and serve as a cherished winter haven. With technological advancement, the traditional hamam has found a modern, more affordable counterpart—the electric hamam, now widely installed in homes and valued for its efficiency, and low maintenance.
This system, whether traditional or modern, represents one of the most significant architectural adaptations developed in Kashmir to cope with its long, severe winters. The hamam not only provided warmth but also influenced the design of residential and religious buildings, creating comfortable communal spaces during periods of intense cold. It reflected the social status of families who could afford such a structure and became a symbol of comfort, hospitality, and cultural refinement. Today, even with changing lifestyles, the hamam continues to hold emotional and practical value, connecting contemporary households with a centuries-old legacy of thermal ingenuity.
Another significant addition to Kashmiri winter life has been the bukhari, a cylindrical metal heating appliance in which firewood or charcoal is burned to generate warmth. It became especially common among households that could not afford a hamam or needed to heat larger rooms. Over time, the bukhari has undergone continuous innovation, expanding from traditional wood-burning models to LPG gas bukharis and even being supplemented in many homes by modern electrical appliances such as room heaters. This diversification has broadened heating options across the Valley. Among the newest and most popular developments are the Turkish bukharis, which combine aesthetic elegance with efficient heating and have gained prominence in Kashmiri homes.
The popularity of the bukhari reflects both cultural continuity and technological adaptation in response to Kashmir’s harsh winters. In many households, the bukhari is not merely a heating device but a focal point of evening gatherings, where families sit together, share conversations, and enjoy moments of comfort. Its evolution also mirrors broader economic and social changes, as people shift from traditional practices to more convenient and energy-efficient alternatives. Whether in its simple metal form or its modern Turkish variant, the bukhari remains an enduring symbol of warmth, resilience, and the ingenuity of Kashmiri winter living.
Taken together, these innovations—from the ancient Daan to the Kangri, from the Hamam to the modern Bukhari—tell a remarkable story of human adaptability. For thousands of years, Kashmiris have responded to extreme cold with creativity, transforming necessity into culture and survival into artistry. Today’s modern appliances represent only the latest chapter in a long history of resilience, ingenuity, and the unbroken relationship between Kashmiris and their winter climate. Their present-day heating practices are not isolated inventions but the outcome of an evolutionary journey shaped by the demands of geography and the spirit of a people determined to thrive despite the cold.
Sambodhi, 2021
Kashmir valley with great geo-strategic significance was an economic hub, connecting Indian subco... more Kashmir valley with great geo-strategic significance was an economic hub, connecting Indian subcontinent with Central Asia and rest of the world, since ancient times. Perhaps the most vital contribution which Central Asia made to Kashmir was in the field of its craft technology. A number of arts and crafts for which Kashmir is famous throughout the world were introduced from Central Asia during the period of our study. In this manuscript an attempt has been made to describe this technology transmission that graduated Kashmir's technological position to the status of such hubs of medieval civilization as Samarqand and Bukhara. True, Kashmiri culture is a mosaic culture woven of varied threads drawn from various sources. To this brilliant picture was added more improved threads and designs during our period of study in the wake of more immigrations and the transmission of new ideas.
Kala : The Journal of Indian Art History Congress, 2020
Right from the very beginning, religion has been a major motivating force and thus, human history... more Right from the very beginning, religion has been a major motivating force and thus, human history cannot be understood without taking religion into consideration. Buddhism is one of the world's great religions, and has deeply influenced the character and evolution of Asian civilizations over the past several hundred decades. Soon after the Mahaparinibhana of Buddha, the valley of Kashmir developed into a great seat of Buddhist learning which attracted aspirants from far and wide regions to acquire knowledge. The testimony to this fact is found in the form of different ruined stupas and viharas in valley. Majhantika, who was deputed by Ashoka to Kashmir, is known to have found twelve viharas in existence on his arrival in Kashmir. Kalhana has mentioned that the first Buddhist monastery was erected by the native King Surrendra. Huein Tsang who visited Kashmir in 631.C.E. found about one hundred Sangharamas and five thousand Buddhist priests. He visited many viharas like the Jaskavihara and Jayandra Vihara. In this manuscript the focus has been put on the study of the various Buddhist known and unknown sites of valley of Kashmir.
Purakala, 2020
With the ascendance of the Karkota dynasty, the Hindu Kingdom of Kashmir reached great heights of... more With the ascendance of the Karkota dynasty, the Hindu Kingdom of Kashmir reached great heights of power and prestige. Its influence and fame spread far and wide, in the process, attracting respect and receiving tribute from neighboring states/kingdoms. Lalitaditya Muktapida is credited with the extensive conquests not only in the Himalayan regions adjoining to the valley of Kashmir but also in the distant plains of India. And He was successful in controlling the trade routes between Kashmir and Afghanistan. It was during his rule that the celebrated Chinese traveler Huein Tsang visited Kashmir and stayed there for two years between 631 and 633 CE. Huein Tsang was provided all the facilities to study Hindu scriptures in Sanskrit and was treated with courtesy. He was extended great hospitality that was due to a foreign traveler wanting to study the Kingdom of Kashmir.
Utkal Historical Research Journal, 2021
A new era dawned in the history of India with the birth of Ab'ul Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn Khusrau bette... more A new era dawned in the history of India with the birth of Ab'ul Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn Khusrau better known as Amīr Khusrau Dehlavī , who was a famous Sufi musician, Poet, Historian and scholar of late 13 th and early 14 th century. He is one of the leading figure who have focused on the cultural history, language, flora and fauna of the Indian subcontinent. Amīr Khusrau has stood for a major cultural icon in the history of Indian civilization for almost seven hundred years. When Amir Khusrau was in his twenties, he began his career early as a professional writer and later as a Historian. For the next fifty years, until his death in 1325, Khusrau was initially in the court of smaller nobles and princes, then later permanently at the court of the Sultans of Delhi. He witnessed the rule of seven sultans and managed to survive the political intrigues of the various factions and individuals at work in the court of Delhi Sultans.
shodhak a journal of historical research , 2023
Revenue was one of the main pillars of the Mughal administration. From the very beginning the lan... more Revenue was one of the main pillars of the Mughal administration. From the very beginning the land revenue was the main source of states income. Under the Mughals assessment was separately made for kharif and rabi crops. The magnitude of land revenue demand varied from region to region. The land revenue was mostly collected in kind. The practice of collecting land revenue in cash was in use in some regions even as early as thirteenth century. In the Mughal era, the peasant under zabti system had to pay revenue in cash. The Revenue administration under the first two Mughal rulers-Babur and Humayun-continued to operate as it was under the Sultans of Delhi. It was Sher Shah Suri, who intervened between Humayun and Akbar, who provided an excellent land revenue system. Sher Shah Suri was the first muslim ruler who ordered a systematic land survey and laid the main principles of land revenue. Akbar extended and enhanced the revenue system of Sher Shah, but later on introduced some innovation in the system, which continued even after the demise of Mughal Empire under Britishers.
Teaching Documents by Sheikh Zahid
Greater Kashmir, 2026
As India celebrates its 77th Republic Day, the occasion invites reflection not only on ceremonial... more As India celebrates its 77th Republic Day, the occasion invites reflection not only on ceremonial grandeur but on the deeper constitutional commitments made on 26 January 1950. On that day, India did more than formally end colonial rule. By adopting its Constitution, the country declared itself a republic and made a set of deliberate, legally binding promises to its citizens—promises intended to transform everyday life in a society emerging from empire, inequality, and the trauma of Partition.
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Papers by Sheikh Zahid
It is often said that necessity is the mother of invention, and nowhere does this saying hold truer than in Kashmir. From ancient times, when early humans lived in pits and caves, to the present era of modern heating appliances, the people of Kashmir have continuously developed unique ways to survive some of the harshest winters in the Indian subcontinent. This long journey of adaptation, innovation, and resilience has unfolded over thousands of years. Winter has not merely been a season here—it has been a force that shaped lifestyle, architecture, social practices, and technological creativity. It taught the common Kashmiri how to combat cold, and over time, Kashmiris developed an entire range of heating techniques that make them distinct among other cold-climate communities of South Asia.
Human mastery of fire dates back nearly 1.5 to 2 million years, with clear evidence from Swartkrans in South Africa and sites in Kenya. In the Indian subcontinent, the earliest signs of controlled fire, discovered at the Main Belan archaeological site in Uttar Pradesh, date to around 50,000–55,000 years ago. While fire became central to human survival everywhere, the people of Kashmir adapted it in particularly innovative ways. One of the earliest examples is the Daan or Danbur, the traditional hearth that served Kashmiri households for centuries. It was far more than a cooking place: it provided heat, allowed water to be boiled in clay or copper tanks known as mat’e, and acted as the very centre of domestic life during long frozen months. For generations, the Daan remained the primary source of warmth inside traditional Kashmiri homes.
Building upon this deep historical background, it becomes clear that fire was not only a technological achievement but also a cultural anchor. In Kashmir’s harsh winters—where temperatures often dropped drastically and snow covered the landscape for weeks—the Daan offered a space for family interaction, storytelling, and everyday living. It shaped architectural patterns, influenced social habits, and became inseparable from the rhythm of rural and urban life. Even as modern heating methods emerged, the memory of the Daan continued to symbolize warmth, community, and continuity in Kashmiri tradition.
As society evolved, Kashmiris introduced another device—the Kangri, a portable firepot woven from wicker and filled with glowing embers. The Kangri is not just a heating tool; it is a cultural symbol, woven into everyday winter life. It can be tucked beneath the pheran, held inside blankets, or placed under the feet—practices rarely seen in any other cold region. This distinctive manoeuvring of the kangri was also noted by G. T. Vigne in the 19th century. The finest Kangris traditionally came from Chrar-e-Sharief, Bandipora, and Kulgam. Although we lack precise evidence about when Kangris came into use, historical references show that by the 15th century they were already widespread. When Sheikh-ul-Alam (Nund Rishi) passed away around 1438, tradition records that he was buried with a Chrar-Kangri, signalling its deep cultural importance even at that time.
Another method to keep warm was the hamam, essentially an improvisation of the Turkish bath. As Saleem Beg, convener of the Jammu & Kashmir chapter of INTACH, notes, “The hamam has Turkish origins but Kashmir was never ruled by Turks. Since the Afghans who ruled Kashmir took pride in their Turkic origins, we can say that the hamam’s origins lie in Central Asia.” The hamam, a stone-floored heating system used mostly by well-off families and in mosques, is heated from below by firewood, allowing it to radiate warmth for hours and serve as a cherished winter haven. With technological advancement, the traditional hamam has found a modern, more affordable counterpart—the electric hamam, now widely installed in homes and valued for its efficiency, and low maintenance.
This system, whether traditional or modern, represents one of the most significant architectural adaptations developed in Kashmir to cope with its long, severe winters. The hamam not only provided warmth but also influenced the design of residential and religious buildings, creating comfortable communal spaces during periods of intense cold. It reflected the social status of families who could afford such a structure and became a symbol of comfort, hospitality, and cultural refinement. Today, even with changing lifestyles, the hamam continues to hold emotional and practical value, connecting contemporary households with a centuries-old legacy of thermal ingenuity.
Another significant addition to Kashmiri winter life has been the bukhari, a cylindrical metal heating appliance in which firewood or charcoal is burned to generate warmth. It became especially common among households that could not afford a hamam or needed to heat larger rooms. Over time, the bukhari has undergone continuous innovation, expanding from traditional wood-burning models to LPG gas bukharis and even being supplemented in many homes by modern electrical appliances such as room heaters. This diversification has broadened heating options across the Valley. Among the newest and most popular developments are the Turkish bukharis, which combine aesthetic elegance with efficient heating and have gained prominence in Kashmiri homes.
The popularity of the bukhari reflects both cultural continuity and technological adaptation in response to Kashmir’s harsh winters. In many households, the bukhari is not merely a heating device but a focal point of evening gatherings, where families sit together, share conversations, and enjoy moments of comfort. Its evolution also mirrors broader economic and social changes, as people shift from traditional practices to more convenient and energy-efficient alternatives. Whether in its simple metal form or its modern Turkish variant, the bukhari remains an enduring symbol of warmth, resilience, and the ingenuity of Kashmiri winter living.
Taken together, these innovations—from the ancient Daan to the Kangri, from the Hamam to the modern Bukhari—tell a remarkable story of human adaptability. For thousands of years, Kashmiris have responded to extreme cold with creativity, transforming necessity into culture and survival into artistry. Today’s modern appliances represent only the latest chapter in a long history of resilience, ingenuity, and the unbroken relationship between Kashmiris and their winter climate. Their present-day heating practices are not isolated inventions but the outcome of an evolutionary journey shaped by the demands of geography and the spirit of a people determined to thrive despite the cold.
Teaching Documents by Sheikh Zahid