Papers by GEORGIANNA MORAITOU
Το Μουσείον 8 , 2014
Through a publication in the Press dated 28.
2.1901, the handwritten reports of the chemist
Othon... more Through a publication in the Press dated 28.
2.1901, the handwritten reports of the chemist
Othon Rhousopoulos dated 1903 and 1908 and
a handwritten request of the special technician
Ioannis Papanikolaou dated 1904, which are kept
in the Historical Archive of the Directorate for the
Management of the National Archives of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture, the present paper presents the difficult financial situation of the latter
and the inappropriate working conditions that
prevailed at the National Archaeological Museum
during the conservation work of the bronze finds
from Antikythera in the beginning of the 20th c.
CONSERVATION UPDATE, 2025
The Photographic Archive (PA) of the Hellenic National Archaeological Museum (HNAM) in Athens is ... more The Photographic Archive (PA) of the Hellenic National Archaeological Museum (HNAM) in Athens is among the oldest in Greece, comprising thousands of glass-plate negatives, analogue films, and photographic prints dating from the late 19th to the late 20th century. This extensive collection provides a unique visual record of the Museum’s institutional history and the formative activities of the Archaeological Service, serving as a vital resource for the study of Greek archaeology and museology. Despite its historical significance, the Archive had long lacked a coordinated conservation strategy. To address this, a Preservation Assessment Survey conducted between 2017 and 2018 provided
a systematic inventory and condition report of the materials, enabling the prioritisation of conservation needs and thereby facilitating the acquisition of funding. The survey laid the foundation for a broader interdisciplinary study aimed at long-term preservation planning and sustainable archive management.
Between 2021 and 2023, the archive underwent extensive preservation and reorganisation as part of the EU-funded HNAM major project, under the NSRF / Operational Programme Act 2014–2020, titled “Modernisation and Promotion of the National Archaeological Museum with the Use of Computer Science and Communication Technologies”. This initiative stabilised the physical integrity of the archive and introduced digital methodologies to improve documentation and access.
The project represents a significant advancement in the stewardship of Greece’s cultural heritage. By converting a historically rich but previously under-resourced archive into a systematically preserved and accessible collection, it reinforces the critical role of photographic documentation
in archaeological research and museological practice. The initiative ensures that this visual legacy is not only safeguarded but also meaningfully integrated into future scholarly inquiry and public engagement.
Το άρθρο αυτό βασίζεται σε συνέντευξη που έγινε στην Ερέτρια στις 23 Μαρτίου 2019. Ο Σταύρος Κασσ... more Το άρθρο αυτό βασίζεται σε συνέντευξη που έγινε στην Ερέτρια στις 23 Μαρτίου 2019. Ο Σταύρος Κασσανδρής υπηρέτησε στο Εθνικό Αρχαιολογικό Μουσείο από το 1952 έως το 1987, όπου συντήρησε μερικά από τα πιο εμβληματικά αρχαία.
Archaeologia & Arts, 2019
Not even Gods are invulnerable. The bronze statue of Poseidon was found dismembered and broken in... more Not even Gods are invulnerable. The bronze statue of Poseidon was found dismembered and broken in pieces in 1897 in the sea of Livadostra. ;Only the head was found intact. It was conserved in 1897, 1935, 1970 and 2016. The history of its adventures illustrates the technological achievements of the conservation discipline.
Πεπραγμένα Ζ’ Διεθνούς Κρητολογικού Συνεδρίου, Τόμος Α2, Τμήμα Αρχαιολογικό, Έτη ΣΤ’ –Ζ’ (1994-1995), Τεύχη 11-14, Ρέθυμνο 1995, 665-674, ΠΙΝ. ΝΘ’, Ξ’, ΞΑ’, ΞΒ’., 1995
Περιγράφεται η συντήρηση και η στήριξη του κορμού του Κούρου του Παλαίκαστρου από τις πρώτες βοήθ... more Περιγράφεται η συντήρηση και η στήριξη του κορμού του Κούρου του Παλαίκαστρου από τις πρώτες βοήθειες στην ανασκαφή έως την έκθεσή του στο Μουσείο της Σητείας.
The Palaikastro Kouros, a Minoan Chryselephantine Statuette and its Aegean Bronze Age Context, 2000
The paper presents the conservation and mounting of the torso of the Palaikastros Kouros from fir... more The paper presents the conservation and mounting of the torso of the Palaikastros Kouros from first aid on site to the display at the Siteia Archaeological Museum.
Archaeological Textile Newsletter, 2007
The conservation of funeral pyre textile of King Philip II of Macedonia, Greece, undertaken in 19... more The conservation of funeral pyre textile of King Philip II of Macedonia, Greece, undertaken in 1997 in the Vergina Laboratory included examination (fibre identification, weave analysis, assessment of the state of preservation), experimental conservation treatment on previously treated and untreated fragments (removal of old consolidant, alignment of warp and weft, new consolidation) and mounting some fragments for exhibition. The textile is provisionally reported to be of cotton.
Ground-Penetrating Radar for Nondestructive Structural Imaging of Ancient Sculptures
The Origins of Archaeometry and Archaeological Conservation in Greece and their late Institutionalization
Academia Letters, 2021
Εθνικό Μετσόβιο Πολυτεχνείο (ΕΜΠ). Σχολή Χημικών Μηχανικών/PhD Thesis National Technical University Athens, 2014
SUMMARY
The subject of the present dissertation was the study of corrosion and
deterioration of... more SUMMARY
The subject of the present dissertation was the study of corrosion and
deterioration of ancient colored flat architectural glass in a marine
environment. More specifically the glass studied was the Kenchreai glass opus
sectile panels which had been exposed in two successive environments first the
burial which was marine then an uncontrolled museum environment
The glass opus sectile panels, a unique archaeological find consisting of 100
mosaic panels dating to the 4th c. AD were destined to decorate the walls of a
local building. The panels were found by the American School of Classical
Studies in Kenchreai the Eastern port of Corinth between 1965 and 1968 in
their wooden packing crates. Eighty seven (87) panels were recovered and
immediately received first aid treatment and were transported to Nauplion
Museum for further conservation. Many of the initial interventions failed as it
was later proved. Some fragments were transported to the States for further
treatment. Since 1972 the panels are housed in Isthmia Archaeological
Museum.
Aim of the present study was the assessment of the state of preservation of the
panels, the investigation of the causes and mechanisms of deterioration and
the development of a non destructive examination protocol, preventive
measures and remedial conservation treatment.
The aim was accomplished using a methodology which first included a
literature survey, an archival research and an oral interview. In a second stage
a survey of the panels at Isthmia Museum was conducted and the panels were
macroscopically examined and compared to the initially inventoried so as a
statistical approach could be possible. In addition a documentation system was
developed including photograph and mapping. Furthermore the climatic
conditions of the museum environment were recorded. At a third stage
sampling was performed on the different glasses and their corroded state. The
samples were analysed with the following techniques: Fiber optic microscopy,
SEM/EDS, Thin section petrographic microscope, TEM/EDS, ICP, XRD, FTIR,
DSC, TGA, RBS, NRA, EPR, Multispectral imaging, XRF, X-ray imaging, LIBS.
Diagnosis
In the first theoretical part bibliographic data relating to glass and specifically
ancient glass is exposed (Chapter 1). Then data on corrosion, deterioration
(Chapter 2) conservation and protection along with ethical considerations
prevailing are exposed (Chapter 3). In Chapter 4 the opus sectile panels are
presented from the point of view of archaeology, history of art, production
technology and manufacturing technique while in chapter 5 the problem is
described.
xxii
In the second experimental part the experimental design is exposed and the
results are presented and discussed. In chapter 6 the aims are analyzed and
sampling is described. In chapter 7 the present state of preservation of the
panels is presented, in chapter 8 the environmental impact first in the
underwater environment and consequently in the uncontrolled museum. In
chapter 9 the previous conservation treatments are examined which
contributed to the present state of the panels. In chapters 10 and 11 the results
of the physicochemical analytical and non destructive techniques on samples
of pristine glass and corroded glass are presented. In chapter 12 a non
destructive analytical and imaging diagnostic protocol is presented, while in
chapter 13 some small scale experimental conservation interventions are
described. In the last chapter no 14, which constitutes the third part of the
study, the final conclusions are presented together with an integrated
methodology of non destructive examination, conservation and protection
proposed. Last but not least further study and future prospects are given. An
informed bibliography follows and a list of publications and communications
that took place in the framework of the present study. Finally a three part
appendix follows including the analytical results of Brill 1976, the XRD graphs,
the thermodiagrams up to 1000C and a list of nondestructive techniques that
were used in the present study and their functional parameters.
According to the outcome of the present study the panels are constituted of
different glasses having different properties which had a variable degree of
corrosion. In general the opaque colored glass which contain crystalline
inclusions exhibit a greater chemical durability from the transparent glasses
and are considered as systems of great technological edge. The highest
chemical durability was exhibited by the flesh colored glass which was
characterized as a ceramic glass and a product of nanotechnology.
In their initial state the Kenchreai glasses consisted in a glass matrix in the
interior of which micro and nano inclusions were dispersed which gave color
and opacity to them. After a thousand and six hundred years of submersion in
a marine environment glass was converted to a chemically related but
physically completely different material possessing porosity and called a silica
gel. The process of conversion is gradual and can be related to the reverse
technology of glass production based on sol gel. The inclusions in the interior
of the glass matrix reacted with the elements of the environment and lost their
original color altering the appearance of the glass.
Lack of scientific knowledge in material science as far as corroded glass is
concerned was the main cause of previous conservation failure which led to
the present tragic state of the panels.
Instability and active deterioration is revealed through the pulverization of the
silica gel layers and the disintegration of the glass core. This is partly due to
the insufficient desalination of the panels and the uncontrolled museum
xxiii
environment where the RH repeatedly passed over 75%threshhold for the
crystallization of sodium chloride.
Out come of the present study was the development of i) a protocol of
documenting examination using non destructive analytical and imaging
techniques, ii) a scheme for the preventive conservation of the panels
(intervention on the environment and surroundings of the panels) and iii)
requirements for a remedial conservation treatment protocol which must be
first applied on a small experimental scale.
Preventive conservation (no 2outcome) has already been implemented in the
year 2005-2006 by rehousing the opus sectile panels in a climatically controlled
walk in chamber in tailor made cabinet drawers replacing the old packing
materials with inert modern ones. The project was financed by a European
program and executed by the Directorate of Ancient and Modern Monuments
for the 37 Ephorate of Classical Antiquities, both of the Hellenic Ministry of
Culture.
Exhibition Catalogue National Archaeological Museum, 2018
The role of the university professor Constantinos Zeghelis in the conservation of two iconic bron... more The role of the university professor Constantinos Zeghelis in the conservation of two iconic bronze statues of the National Archaeological Museum in Athens in the 1920ies and 1930ies is presented. The paper is enriched with archival information.
Exhibition Catalogue National Archaeological Museum Athens, 2016
Research in 130 years of conservation and five generations of the people involved in the physicoc... more Research in 130 years of conservation and five generations of the people involved in the physicochemical research, conservation and mounting of the collections of the National Archaeological Museum at Athens.
Corrosion phenomena and composition of a core-formed vessel
The core-formed alabastron studied is made of blue glass and decorated with threads of opaque whi... more The core-formed alabastron studied is made of blue glass and decorated with threads of opaque white and yellow glass. The study involved observation under a binocular microscope, observation with scanning electron microscope and electron probe micro analysis (SEM-EPMA) and analysis of samples with atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results showed that the colour of the blue glass is due of the presence of copper and iron, the colour and opacity of the white glass to the presence of calcium antimonate and those of the yellow glass to the pesence of lead antimonate. The core material contains most probably sand grains cemented together with a material rich in iron oxide. The study of the deterioration revealed the different behaviour and corrasion phenomena of the three types of glass in the same environmental conditions.
Excavated archaeological textiles in Greece: Past, present and future
A survey through published and unpublished data on archaeological textiles found in land excavati... more A survey through published and unpublished data on archaeological textiles found in land excavations in Greece has revealed an important list. Information such as provenance, archaeological context, environmental parameters, condition of the finds, scientific examination, documentation, conservation treatment etc is compiled and interesting results are found for the characterization of this limited, but important sector of Hellenic Cultural Heritage. This paper is a presentation of the operation plan conducted by the Directorate of Conservation of Ancient and Modern Monuments-Hellenic Ministry of Culture, on the development of conservation strategies for archaeological textiles.
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Papers by GEORGIANNA MORAITOU
2.1901, the handwritten reports of the chemist
Othon Rhousopoulos dated 1903 and 1908 and
a handwritten request of the special technician
Ioannis Papanikolaou dated 1904, which are kept
in the Historical Archive of the Directorate for the
Management of the National Archives of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture, the present paper presents the difficult financial situation of the latter
and the inappropriate working conditions that
prevailed at the National Archaeological Museum
during the conservation work of the bronze finds
from Antikythera in the beginning of the 20th c.
a systematic inventory and condition report of the materials, enabling the prioritisation of conservation needs and thereby facilitating the acquisition of funding. The survey laid the foundation for a broader interdisciplinary study aimed at long-term preservation planning and sustainable archive management.
Between 2021 and 2023, the archive underwent extensive preservation and reorganisation as part of the EU-funded HNAM major project, under the NSRF / Operational Programme Act 2014–2020, titled “Modernisation and Promotion of the National Archaeological Museum with the Use of Computer Science and Communication Technologies”. This initiative stabilised the physical integrity of the archive and introduced digital methodologies to improve documentation and access.
The project represents a significant advancement in the stewardship of Greece’s cultural heritage. By converting a historically rich but previously under-resourced archive into a systematically preserved and accessible collection, it reinforces the critical role of photographic documentation
in archaeological research and museological practice. The initiative ensures that this visual legacy is not only safeguarded but also meaningfully integrated into future scholarly inquiry and public engagement.
The subject of the present dissertation was the study of corrosion and
deterioration of ancient colored flat architectural glass in a marine
environment. More specifically the glass studied was the Kenchreai glass opus
sectile panels which had been exposed in two successive environments first the
burial which was marine then an uncontrolled museum environment
The glass opus sectile panels, a unique archaeological find consisting of 100
mosaic panels dating to the 4th c. AD were destined to decorate the walls of a
local building. The panels were found by the American School of Classical
Studies in Kenchreai the Eastern port of Corinth between 1965 and 1968 in
their wooden packing crates. Eighty seven (87) panels were recovered and
immediately received first aid treatment and were transported to Nauplion
Museum for further conservation. Many of the initial interventions failed as it
was later proved. Some fragments were transported to the States for further
treatment. Since 1972 the panels are housed in Isthmia Archaeological
Museum.
Aim of the present study was the assessment of the state of preservation of the
panels, the investigation of the causes and mechanisms of deterioration and
the development of a non destructive examination protocol, preventive
measures and remedial conservation treatment.
The aim was accomplished using a methodology which first included a
literature survey, an archival research and an oral interview. In a second stage
a survey of the panels at Isthmia Museum was conducted and the panels were
macroscopically examined and compared to the initially inventoried so as a
statistical approach could be possible. In addition a documentation system was
developed including photograph and mapping. Furthermore the climatic
conditions of the museum environment were recorded. At a third stage
sampling was performed on the different glasses and their corroded state. The
samples were analysed with the following techniques: Fiber optic microscopy,
SEM/EDS, Thin section petrographic microscope, TEM/EDS, ICP, XRD, FTIR,
DSC, TGA, RBS, NRA, EPR, Multispectral imaging, XRF, X-ray imaging, LIBS.
Diagnosis
In the first theoretical part bibliographic data relating to glass and specifically
ancient glass is exposed (Chapter 1). Then data on corrosion, deterioration
(Chapter 2) conservation and protection along with ethical considerations
prevailing are exposed (Chapter 3). In Chapter 4 the opus sectile panels are
presented from the point of view of archaeology, history of art, production
technology and manufacturing technique while in chapter 5 the problem is
described.
xxii
In the second experimental part the experimental design is exposed and the
results are presented and discussed. In chapter 6 the aims are analyzed and
sampling is described. In chapter 7 the present state of preservation of the
panels is presented, in chapter 8 the environmental impact first in the
underwater environment and consequently in the uncontrolled museum. In
chapter 9 the previous conservation treatments are examined which
contributed to the present state of the panels. In chapters 10 and 11 the results
of the physicochemical analytical and non destructive techniques on samples
of pristine glass and corroded glass are presented. In chapter 12 a non
destructive analytical and imaging diagnostic protocol is presented, while in
chapter 13 some small scale experimental conservation interventions are
described. In the last chapter no 14, which constitutes the third part of the
study, the final conclusions are presented together with an integrated
methodology of non destructive examination, conservation and protection
proposed. Last but not least further study and future prospects are given. An
informed bibliography follows and a list of publications and communications
that took place in the framework of the present study. Finally a three part
appendix follows including the analytical results of Brill 1976, the XRD graphs,
the thermodiagrams up to 1000C and a list of nondestructive techniques that
were used in the present study and their functional parameters.
According to the outcome of the present study the panels are constituted of
different glasses having different properties which had a variable degree of
corrosion. In general the opaque colored glass which contain crystalline
inclusions exhibit a greater chemical durability from the transparent glasses
and are considered as systems of great technological edge. The highest
chemical durability was exhibited by the flesh colored glass which was
characterized as a ceramic glass and a product of nanotechnology.
In their initial state the Kenchreai glasses consisted in a glass matrix in the
interior of which micro and nano inclusions were dispersed which gave color
and opacity to them. After a thousand and six hundred years of submersion in
a marine environment glass was converted to a chemically related but
physically completely different material possessing porosity and called a silica
gel. The process of conversion is gradual and can be related to the reverse
technology of glass production based on sol gel. The inclusions in the interior
of the glass matrix reacted with the elements of the environment and lost their
original color altering the appearance of the glass.
Lack of scientific knowledge in material science as far as corroded glass is
concerned was the main cause of previous conservation failure which led to
the present tragic state of the panels.
Instability and active deterioration is revealed through the pulverization of the
silica gel layers and the disintegration of the glass core. This is partly due to
the insufficient desalination of the panels and the uncontrolled museum
xxiii
environment where the RH repeatedly passed over 75%threshhold for the
crystallization of sodium chloride.
Out come of the present study was the development of i) a protocol of
documenting examination using non destructive analytical and imaging
techniques, ii) a scheme for the preventive conservation of the panels
(intervention on the environment and surroundings of the panels) and iii)
requirements for a remedial conservation treatment protocol which must be
first applied on a small experimental scale.
Preventive conservation (no 2outcome) has already been implemented in the
year 2005-2006 by rehousing the opus sectile panels in a climatically controlled
walk in chamber in tailor made cabinet drawers replacing the old packing
materials with inert modern ones. The project was financed by a European
program and executed by the Directorate of Ancient and Modern Monuments
for the 37 Ephorate of Classical Antiquities, both of the Hellenic Ministry of
Culture.