Papers by TIKA RAM POUDEL
FORESTRY: Journal of Institute of Forestry, Nepal, 2025
The Himalayan red panda (Ailurus fulgens), belonging to Ailuridae family, is an endangered and ha... more The Himalayan red panda (Ailurus fulgens), belonging to Ailuridae family, is an endangered and habitat specialist carnivore with a peculiar feeding behaviour. A large proportion of potential habitat of the Himalayan red panda lies outside protected areas, which is inadequately assessed on the local scale. Mewa watershed in Taplejung District, eastern Nepal harbors a part of potential habitat of the Himalayan red panda, which has not been explored in terms of habitat requirement attributes of the species. Thus, the study attempted to determine habitat variables affecting distribution and habitat association of the Himalayan red panda in the Mewa watershed. Based on a grid-based survey design, the study deployed altitudinal transects (n = 45; 0.5 to 1 km length) to record animals' evidence and ecological attributes and circular plots (n = 146) for vegetation assessment. Data were analyzed in ArcGIS 10.4.1 for mapping, and binary logistic regression analysis to determine the important habitat correlates. Signs of the Himalayan red panda were recorded in eight grids of the 14 survey grids between the range of 2,500 and 3,500 m elevation in the northeast and northwest aspects and between 15° and 40° slope. A total of 90.32% indirect and 9.67% direct evidence of the species were recorded in 31 plots. The Himalayan red panda defecates mostly in tree branches (56.36%) as the main substrate. Distance to water sources, bamboo clump presence and livestock activity were the important habitat components of the Himalayan red panda, which showed positive association with their distribution and marginal significance, whereas human trails and shrub richness were associated negatively. The study identified livestock activity and human trails as major threats to the Himalayan red panda and its habitat in the Mewa watershed. This study provides valuable insights into the important habitat attributes and potential threats faced by the species in the study area.
Ecology and Evolution, 2026
The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata; Manidae, Pholidota), a species categorized as “Endanger... more The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata; Manidae, Pholidota), a species categorized as “Endangered” on the IUCN Red List, is one of nine extant pangolin species in Asia. This study investigated habitat preference, habitat suitability, and illegal trade routes of the Indian pangolin in Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. Habitat preference was determined by analyzing the distribution and density of pangolin signs across various land cover types. Habitat suitability for the species was assessed using the MaxEnt modeling approach and field data. Trade routes were identified using information from hunters, poachers, dealers, and local communities to understand the threats related to illegal wildlife trafficking. Results indicated significant differences in burrow distributions across habitats (χ2 = 17.756, df = 6, p < 0.01), which suggest ecological preferences and adaptations. We complemented MaxEnt with Random Forest and Support Vector Machine models trained with the same predictors and spatial folds to validate robustness and characterize non-linear effects. Across held-out folds, SVM performed best, with RF and MaxEnt yielding comparable but lower discrimination; a TSS-weighted ensemble provided a stable consensus SVM (mean AUC ≈ 0.61; TSS ≈ 0.33). Variable-importance and partial-dependence analyses consistently highlighted Elevation, NDMI, and NDWI as influential predictors. Several routes used for the illegal trade of Indian pangolin scales and whole animals were identified. The study also highlights the ongoing issues of illegal poaching and habitat intrusion, worsened by low local awareness and inadequate enforcement. The findings support a comprehensive conservation strategy that includes strict enforcement of wildlife protection laws, increased penalties for poaching, community-based monitoring through targeted awareness campaigns, local wildlife patrols, and ongoing scientific research to support habitat restoration, adaptive management, and evidence-based policy development. Community-based conservation initiatives and improved wildlife law enforcement at key trafficking hubs could significantly reduce poaching pressure.
Global Ecology and Conservation, 2025
The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), classified as endangered, faces significant threats fr... more The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), classified as endangered, faces significant threats from habitat degradation and illegal poaching, which has led to rapid population declines. This study examines the ecological factors influencing pangolin population trends, and the associated conservation challenges based on extensive field surveys conducted from November 2021 to March 2023. The findings suggest that habitat type and elevation (300-600 m) significantly influence burrow distribution, with mid-elevation environments providing optimal conditions. Over three years, burrow density reduced from 0.78/km² in 2021-0.43/km² in 2023, indicating a population decline. Conservation attitudes of local people were influenced by education, occupation, and socioeconomic factors. This research was undertaken in Pakistan's semi-arid and mountainous habitats, where pangolins are subjected to growing pressures of habitat loss and illegal trade. These findings suggest an immediate need for conservation interventions, such as habitat restoration, improved enforcement of wildlife laws, and community involvement. Integrating ecological and socioeconomic approaches, this study provides valuable insights that can inform regional as well as international conservation strategies and support evidence-based decisionmaking for the protection of the Indian pangolin.
Trees, Forests and People, 2025
Forest structure is a fundamental component of the forest ecosystem and significantly impacts car... more Forest structure is a fundamental component of the forest ecosystem and significantly impacts carbon sequestration. Previous studies mainly focused on optimizing forest non-spatial attributes for restoring carbon, but the significance of stand spatial structure characteristics to carbon sequestration remains unclear. To understand the relationship between stand spatial structure (SSS) [i.e., Mingling index (M), Dominance index (D), Uniform angle index (W), Crowdedness index (C), and Hegyi competition index (Hy)] on carbon sequestration (Cs), this study was carried out based on four 50m×50 m plots of natural Larix gmelinii plots at Cuigang Forest Farm, located in the Daxing'an Mountains of Heilongjiang province, northeast China. The results revealed that the SSS of the forest exhibited minor instabilities, characterized by constant species mixing and moderate unpredictability in species dominance over 10 years (2012-2022). At the plot level, carbon stock increased significantly with an annual increment carbon (Aic) (i.e., 0.9-1.38 t ha⁻¹ per year) and relative increment carbon (Ric) significantly fluctuated (i.e., 4.48-5.84 %). A significant positive correlation was observed between SSS and Cs, particularly with M, D, and Hy, while a negative correlation was found with W and C. Hence, our findings demonstrate that SSS is crucial in regulating carbon sequestration, with dense and competitive structure contributing to maximized carbon sequestration capacity and mitigating the impact of climate change, offering critical insights for sustainable forest management.
Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 2025
Tree attributes, such as height (H) and diameter at breast height (D), are essential for predicti... more Tree attributes, such as height (H) and diameter at breast height (D), are essential for predicting forest growth, evaluating stand characteristics and developing yield models for sustainable forest management. Measuring tree H is particularly challenging in uneven-aged forests compared to D. To overcome these difficulties, the development of updated and reliable H-D models is crucial. This study aimed to develop robust H-D models for Larix gmelinii forest by incorporating stand variables. The dataset consisted of 7,069 Larix gmelinii trees sampled from 96 plots at Northeast China, encompassing a wide range of stand densities, age classes, and site conditions. Fifteen widely recognized nonlinear functions were assessed to model the H-D relationship effectively. Model performance was assessed using root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and the coefficient of determination (R2). Results identified the Ratkowsky model (M8) as the best performer, achieving the highest R2 (0.74), the lowest RMSE (16.47%) and MAE (12.50%), at statistically significant regression coefficients (p < 0.05). Furthermore, M8 was modified into 5 generalized models (GMs) by adding stand-variables (i.e., mean height, mean diameter and volume and their combination), the results indicate that GM2 was the best model achieving R2 of 0.82% and RMSE of 13.7%. We employed generalized nonlinear mixed-effects modeling approach with both fixed and random effects to account for variations at the individual plot level, enhancing the predictive accuracy. The model explained 71% of variability with significant trends in the residuals. The model was calibrated using response calibration method, through EBLUP theory. Our findings suggest that incorporating stand-level variables representing plot-specific characteristics can further improve the fit of mixed- effects models. These advancements provide forest authorities with enhanced tools for supporting sustainable forest management.
PLOS ONE, 2022
More travellers are making swift ascents to higher altitudes without sufficient acclimatization o... more More travellers are making swift ascents to higher altitudes without sufficient acclimatization or pharmaceutical prophylaxis as road connectivity develops in the Himalayan region of Nepal. Our study connects ascent rate with prevalence and severity of acute mountain sickness (AMS) among patients admitted to the emergency ward of the Mustang district hospital in Nepal. A register-based, cross-sectional study was conducted between June 2018 and June 2019 to explore associations of Lake Louise scores with ascent profile, sociodemographic characteristics, and comorbidities using chi-square test, t-test, and Bayesian logistic regression. Of 105 patients, incidence of AMS was 74%, of which 61%, 36%, and 3% were mild, moderate, and severe cases, respectively. In the Bayesian-ordered logistic model of AMS severity, ascent rate (odds ratio 3.13) and smoking (odds ratio 0.16) were significant at a 99% credible interval. Based on the model-derived counterfactual, the risk of developing moderate or severe AMS for a middle-aged, non-smoking male traveling from Pokhara to Muktinath (2978m altitude gain) in a single day is twice that of making the ascent in three days. Ascent rate was strongly associated with the likelihood of developing severe AMS among travellers with AMS symptoms visiting Mustang Hospital's Emergency Ward.
BMC Infectious Diseases, 2022
Background: Vaccination is the most effective method to prevent the spread of infectious diseases... more Background: Vaccination is the most effective method to prevent the spread of infectious diseases and helps reduce mortality rate and economic costs associated with the pandemic. Despite these advantages, misinformation on vaccine safety and efficacy can lead to increased hesitation towards vaccination. This study reports the incidence of adverse events following Covishield vaccination, their associated factors, medication used for their management, and attitudes about vaccine safety. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from the sample of Covishield-vaccinated individuals from a secondary hospital, two primary health centres, and 36 health posts in eastern Nepal. Individuals (n = 602) were randomly sampled from a population (n = 1013) who had received the first dose of Covishield, namely frontline workers and other high-risk populations. The second-round follow-up had 516 participants. Association of incidence and severity of post-vaccination events with socio-demographic variables, comorbidity status, and medication use were estimated. Results: Among the 79.9% of participants who reported adverse events after receiving the first dose, two-thirds of complaints were mild (67.4%, 95% CI 63.2-71.6) with the most common complaint being pain at the injection site (86.5%). Paracetamol or its combination with NSAIDs were used in the majority of cases (95.2%). After the second dose, only 31.2% (95% CI 27.2-35.2) reported adverse events, the overwhelming majority of which were mild (95.7%) and required a lower frequency of medication (7.5% vs. 26.0%). Adverse event following immunization were significantly associated with being 18-30 years old (χ 2 = 16.9, df = 3, p < 0.001) and female gender (χ 2 = 5.2, df = 1, p < 0.05). Prior to the first dose, 86.0% of participants (95% CI 83.3-88.8%) perceived the vaccine to be safe, and 96.0% recommended the vaccine post-vaccination, while 96.8% were interested in receiving the second dose. AEFI severity was negatively associated with vaccine recommendation to the peers (odds-ratio 0.062, p < 0.05) following the first dose, whereas, the optimistic pre-vaccination perception was associated with positive vaccine recommendation post-vaccination (odds-ratio 28.658, p < 0.01). Conclusions: Overall, vaccination-associated events were mild and majority were managed with paracetamol or its combination. Effective counselling about adverse events before vaccination should be prioritized to reduce hesitation and fear.
Forests, Apr 24, 2024
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
Plant Stress, Feb 29, 2024
Through a variety of mechanisms, including increasing the amount of readily available mineral nut... more Through a variety of mechanisms, including increasing the amount of readily available mineral nutrients, regulating phytohormone levels, and biocontrol of phytopathogens, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) associated with the plant rhizosphere either directly or indirectly stimulates plant growth and development. The establishment, survival, and persistence of PGPR inoculants are widely acknowledged to be contingent upon these two parameters, in addition to the intricate network of interactions within the rhizosphere. In general, the soil is a moist environment with significant amounts of carbon that have been degraded and harbors a large population of soil microbes. The rhizo-microbiome is crucial to agriculture because a wide variety of root exudates and plant cell debris attract unique and distinct patterns of microbial colonization. The rhizo-microbiome plays a crucial role in the manufacture and regulation of extracellular molecules, including hormones, secondary metabolites, antibiotics, and various signaling chemicals. Additionally, the microbial composition within the rhizo-microbiome influences soil texture enhancement. Research has shown that PGPR can be used to treat plants or inoculate plants to promote plant development. PGPR alters the physiology of the entire plant, which enhances nutrient uptake and affects the effectiveness of root activity. The specific biochemical processes of plants involved in this phenomenon are often not well understood. Nevertheless, new studies have shed light on the mechanisms via which signaling by PGPR can induce various plant responses, both at the local and systemic levels. Insufficient information is available regarding the impact of the PGPR mechanism and molecules on metabolic pathways in root characteristics. Consequently, this review will concentrate on elucidating the PGPR mechanism and identifying the essential molecules that exert influence on root-microbe interactions.
Frontiers in Plant Science, 2023
Fine root decomposition is a physio-biochemical activity that is critical to the global carbon cy... more Fine root decomposition is a physio-biochemical activity that is critical to the global carbon cycle (C) in forest ecosystems. It is crucial to investigate the mechanisms and factors that control fine root decomposition in forest ecosystems to understand their system-level carbon balance. This process can be influenced by several abiotic (e.g., mean annual temperature, mean annual precipitation, site elevation, stand age, salinity, soil pH) and biotic (e.g., microorganism, substrate quality) variables. Comparing decomposition rates within sites reveals positive impacts of nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations and negative effects of lignin concentration. Nevertheless, estimating the actual fine root breakdown is difficult due to inadequate methods, anthropogenic activities, and the impact of climate change. Herein, we propose that how fine root substrate and soil physiochemical characteristics interact with soil microorganisms to influence fine root decomposition. This review summarized the elements that influence this process, as well as the research methods used to investigate it. There is also need to study the influence of annual and seasonal changes affecting fine root decomposition. This cumulative evidence will provide information on temporal and spatial dynamics of forest ecosystems, and will determine how logging and reforestation affect fine root decomposition.
Journal of Applied Biology & Biotechnology, 2023
Feeding the world with good agricultural and forestry practices is becoming a challenge and resea... more Feeding the world with good agricultural and forestry practices is becoming a challenge and researchers are working on different approaches to find the most ecofriendly solution. Chemical fertilizers are increasingly being used, despite the fact that their intensive use has proven to have a harmful effect on soil, water, the environment, and, ultimately, plants and humans’ health. Biofertilizer has been considered a better option than other conventional fertilizers since it contains a typical population of helpful microorganisms that provide nutrients to the soil required by the plant without destroying the precious environment. However, in terms of understanding their proper mechanisms and importance for sustainable farming, efficient knowledge of microorganism-based biofertilizers remains in the shadows. This study aims to explore the different challenges faced regarding microorganism-based biofertilizer use in agriculture and forestry. It will support the overcoming of identified challenges and increase farmers’ acceptance as the main option to provide the required nutrition for the soil to obtain better quality and a higher quantity of agricultural products. Overall, priority should be given to developing advanced technology and proper storage mechanisms, distribution mechanisms, and subsidies in order to gain popularity and reliability. This article is timely because biofertilizers are currently undergoing manufacture and application; now is the time to identify challenges and solutions for research and development.
Journal of Environmental Management, 2022
Communities in and around protected areas are exposed to a higher level of human-wildlife interac... more Communities in and around protected areas are exposed to a higher level of human-wildlife interactions. The conservation practice with persistently adverse local livelihood outcomes can potentially aggravate such interactions leading to conflict. In our study, we examined how perceptions of HWC have formed in a protected area of the Trans-Himalayas whose conservation program collides with a centuries-long tradition of transhumance pastoralism. To examine determinants of depredation and how conflict perception has developed there, along with the socioeconomic and ecological interactions underlying those trends, we collected data using household surveys, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. We employed Poisson-logit maximum-likelihood hurdle, binary logit, and multinomial ordered logit regressions in order to explore the determinants of annual livestock depredation, predator attacks on the shed, and household-level perceptions of HWC, respectively. Depredation and encounters with wildlife were the principal causes of perceived HWC, and depredation caused an average household-level loss of US $422.5, up to 23.28% of annual income in some households. Predators' attacks on high-quality sheds were relatively infrequent but more common in areas with perceived habitat degradation. Social customs, pastoral practices, and the present compensation mechanism were identified as being antithetical to conflict reduction and sustainable pastureland management. Further analysis revealed that a diversity of livelihoods, however, lowered conflict perception formation. The identified socio-ecological factors will continue to increase depredation, exacerbate perceived HWC, and degrade pastureland unless local conservation authorities take appropriate remedial measures.
Conference Presentations by TIKA RAM POUDEL
6th Graduate Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development (GCESD), 2020
Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a major challenge for biodiversity conservation with potential r... more Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a major challenge for biodiversity conservation with potential risk of diminishing local support for conservation. Due to dynamic nature of HWC, periodic assessments are essential to ensure evidence based conservation intervention. In ACA there was presences of excessive use of natural resources such as traditional livestock herding practices, overgrazing, massive extraction of resources for fuel and for medicinal and aromatic plants by people has resulted the loss of wildlife habitat and has been identified as a major reason for HWC in these regions. This study was aimed to quantify the nature and extent of conflict, associated monetary loss and local people's attitude towards conservation in Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) within Lomangthang Rural Municipality. Stratified Random sampling was employed to collect data using semi-structured questionnaire survey among 130 household (the then VDCs Chhunup 50, Chhoser 35 and Lomanthang 45). Focal Group Discussion (FGD) on Lomangthang and Key Informant Interview (KII) with ten people who were working for managing conservation area at different levels was also carried out. Local resource dependency viz. use of dung cake, fodder and firewood were the major drivers of encounter with the wildlife in the areas. More than 67.69% respondents faced problems from wild animals and perceived livestock depredation as a major problem compared to crop depredation. Annual average economic loss due to livestock depredation was US$ 224 per household in 2018. Chhoser and Chhunup were highly affected compared to Lomangthang. The annual livestock depredation rate was found 9.55% occurring mostly in winter (80.17%) and mainly in grazing land areas (69.5%) with increased size of herd. Presence of light in the shed was found to reduce livestock depredation by 98%. A focus on conservation education, monitoring, relief and alternate income generation is necessary to boost the existing positive attitude towards wildlife conservation in order to reduce HWC.
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Papers by TIKA RAM POUDEL
Conference Presentations by TIKA RAM POUDEL