Conference Presentations by Karen Ruebens
UKAS poster, 2024
Across the Palaeolithic, humans and carnivores repeatedly occupied the same caves and rock shelte... more Across the Palaeolithic, humans and carnivores repeatedly occupied the same caves and rock shelters. Identifying bone fragments from these dual occupation contexts through Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS) can provide additional insights into both carnivore and human behaviour.
Here, we apply ZooMS to all morphologically unidentifiable bone fragments larger than 2 cm (n = 817) recovered from the 2012-2013 excavated Châtelperronian layer at Cassenade (Dordogne, France). Collagen was extracted using the ammonium-bicarbonate (AmBic) extraction method and over 99% of the sampled bone fragments could be taxonomically identified. While the proportion of Equidae is similar in the ZooMS and zooarchaeological collections, Bos/Bison is represented at a threefold increase in the ZooMS fraction (50.8 vs 16.7%). Conversely, Ursidae, the dominant taxa in the morphologically identifiable remains (36.6%), only formed 7.3% of the ZooMS fragments. While large proportions of the Rhinocerotidae (63.79%), Elephantidae (52%), Equidae (48%) and Bos/Bison (45%) remains have been digested by carnivores, this is only the case for 1.7% of the Ursidae ZooMS fragments. Three-dimensional data is available for all the ZooMS-identified fragments and confirm the near-exclusive presence of cave bear in the lower part of the sequence. Further, the ZooMS spatial data identified a restricted presence of mammoth in the middle part of the sequence and a diverging presence of reindeer and Cervid/saiga remains at the bottom and top.
Overall, this study illustrates the added value of integrating zooarchaeological and ZooMS datasets to obtain additional insights into past ecologies, changing site use, carnivore diet and human subsistence practices.
Stone-tipped hunting weapons are an important marker of the technical and cognitive capacities of... more Stone-tipped hunting weapons are an important marker of the technical and cognitive capacities of Palaeolithic hominins and represent a crucial tipping point in human behavioural evolution. Neanderthals were skilled hunters, as indicated by zooarchaeological and isotope analyses, but preserved remains of organic spears are sparse and potential lithic weapon tips are not ubiquitously present during the Middle Palaeolithic (MP, ca. 300,000 - 40,000BP). Unravelling this enigma and reconstructing the technology underlying MP hunting events is one of the key challenges in studies of Neanderthal behaviour.
Securely identifying hafted weapon tips is complex and past analyses of MP points have mainly focused on individual artefacts, their morphometric characteristics, use-wear and residue traces. Conversely, studies that contextualise MP points at an assemblage level, cross comparing various blank and tool types, are sparse, especially for the European record, even though they are key to a more comprehensive understanding of the role of point shapes in the Neanderthal tool kit.
This poster presents two sets of initial results of this Marie Curie-Sklodawska funded project. Firstly, at the regional scale, it outlines the occurrence and typo-technological characteristics of point shapes across MP assemblages in Western Europe. Results indicate the low presence of triangular forms in many Middle Palaeolithic assemblages but also their more common occurrence in certain specific spatio-temporal entities (e.g. MIS-5 northern France or MIS-3 southeastern France).
Secondly, initial results from an assemblage level study of the lithic material from layer 1 of the Abri du Maras rockshelter (MIS-3, Southeastern France) are presented. Focus was on the material from the 1946-1950 excavation by R. Gilles which resulted in a lithic collection of around 3,000 artefacts. Past studies have pointed out the presence of several pointed flakes with convergent ventral retouch, assigning the assemblage to the so-called Neronian, a late Middle Paleolithic entity only known from the Rhone valley. A detailed attribute analysis focused on the recording across all blanks of a series of features which have been linked to projectile use or hafting (e.g. diagnostic impact fracture, lateral crushing, basal modifications). Results indicate a large variability in the convergent tools, both in terms of blank type (Levallois, discoidal and laminar flaking) as well as retouch extent and location. This poster will further present and cross compare these points within the context of the rest of the assemblage.
Teaching Documents by Karen Ruebens
This activity pack is aimed at children between 3 and 6 years old (preliteracy, Early Years Found... more This activity pack is aimed at children between 3 and 6 years old (preliteracy, Early Years Foundation Stage up to Early Years 3). It can be used in the classroom as well as at home.
It aims to introduce kids to the lifeways and hunting strategies of
Neanderthals based on the most recent scientific discoveries through a series of hands on activities (colouring, cutting, connect the dots, memory game).
Papers by Karen Ruebens
The ecology, subsistence and diet of ~45,000-year-old Homo sapiens at Ilsenhöhle in Ranis, Germany
nature ecology & evolution , 2024
Recent excavations at Ranis (Germany) identified an early dispersal of Homo sapiens into the high... more Recent excavations at Ranis (Germany) identified an early dispersal of Homo sapiens into the higher latitudes of Europe by 45,000 years ago. Here we integrate results from zooarchaeology, palaeoproteomics, sediment DNA and stable isotopes to characterize the ecology, subsistence and diet of these early H. sapiens. We assessed all bone remains (n = 1,754) from the 2016–2022 excavations through morphology (n = 1,218) or palaeoproteomics (zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry (n = 536) and species by proteome investigation (n = 212)). Dominant taxa include reindeer, cave bear, woolly rhinoceros and horse, indicating cold climatic conditions. Numerous carnivore modifications, alongside sparse cut-marked and burnt bones, illustrate a predominant use of the site by hibernating cave bears and denning hyaenas, coupled with a fluctuating human presence. Faunal diversity and high carnivore input were further supported by ancient mammalian DNA recovered from 26 sediment samples. Bulk collagen carbon and nitrogen stable isotope data from 52 animal and 10 human remains confirm a cold steppe/tundra setting and indicate a homogenous human diet based on large terrestrial mammals. This lower-density archaeological signature matches other Lincombian–Ranisian–Jerzmanowician sites and is best explained by expedient visits of short duration by small, mobile groups of pioneer H. sapiens.
Journal of Quaternary Science, 2023
Pleistocene faunal assemblages are often highly fragmented, hindering taxonomic identifications a... more Pleistocene faunal assemblages are often highly fragmented, hindering taxonomic identifications and interpretive potentials. In this paper, we apply four different methodologies to morphologically unidentifiable bone fragments from the Neanderthal open-air site of Salzgitter-Lebenstedt (Germany). First, we recorded zooarchaeological attributes for all 1362 unidentifiable bones recovered in 1977. Second, we applied zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry (ZooMS) to 761 fragments, and calculated glutamine deamidation values. Third, we assessed the collagen preservation of 30 fragments by near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) and, finally, we pretreated 10 bones with high predicted collagen values for radiocarbon dating. All returned dates at, or beyond, the limit of radiocarbon dating, indicating an age of older than 51 000 years ago. The ZooMS faunal spectrum confirms a cold environment, dominated by reindeer, alongside mammoth, horse and bison. The low occurrence of carnivore modifications (1%) contrasts with an abundance of human modifications (23%). Cut marks and marrow fractures were observed across reindeer, horse and bison. The mammoth remains are less well preserved and show a lower degree of human modifications, indicating, perhaps, a different taphonomic history. Overall, this study illustrates the importance of retaining, studying and incorporating the unidentifiable bone fraction to optimize interpretations of site formation and subsistence behaviour at Palaeolithic sites.
Journal of Palaeolithic Archaeology, 2022
The exact strategies and technologies underlying Neanderthal hunting events remain open for debat... more The exact strategies and technologies underlying Neanderthal hunting events remain open for debate with lithic points being sparse across the European Middle Palaeolithic. An exception is the Neronian entity in southeast France, defined by ventrally retouched Soyons points. This study contextualises one of the largest Neronian assemblages, layer 1 at Abri du Maras. Our lithic analyses focussed on attributes described as indicative of projectile use or hafting to contextualise the morphometric and technological characteristics of the pointed implements at an assemblage level. We found that retouched points were made on a variety of blank types (including Levallois, laminar and discoidal flaking techniques) and ventral retouch is present across different artefact types (including points, scrapers and denticulates). Next, these lithic data were compared to similar typo-technological data recorded on a sample from the recently excavated and well-contextualised point-rich layer 4.1 of Abri du Maras (MIS-3). Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS) was applied to 280 faunal remains from layer 1 and indicated significant proportions of equids, bovids, cervids and reindeer. Carnivore remains and carnivore modifications are absent, while human bone surface modifications are present across a variety of species. Five bones had sufficient collagen for radiocarbon dating but returned dates younger than expected (ca. 41-31 ka cal BP). Finally, we place Abri du Maras layer 1 in its broader regional context and discuss its relation to other Neronian assemblages and more general problematics inherent to studying material from old excavations.
Journal of Human Evolution, 2019
The African Middle Pleistocene (781e126 ka) is a key period for human evolution, witnessing both ... more The African Middle Pleistocene (781e126 ka) is a key period for human evolution, witnessing both the origin of the modern human lineage and the lithic turnover from Earlier Stone Age (ESA) Acheulean bifacial tools to Middle Stone Age (MSA) prepared core and point technologies. This ESA/MSA transition is interpreted as representing changing landscape use with greater foraging distances and more active hunting strategies. So far, these behavioral inferences are mainly based on the extensive stone tool record , with only a minor role for site-based and regional faunal studies. To provide additional insights into these behavioral changes, this paper details a pan-African metastudy of 63 Middle Pleistocene faunal assemblages from 40 sites. A hierarchical classification system identified 26 well-contextualized assemblages with quantitative paleontological and/or zooarcheological data available for detailed comparative analyses and generalized linear mixed modeling. Modeling of ungulate body size classes structured around three dimensions (context, antiquity and technology) illustrates no one-to-one correlation between changes in lithic technology (Acheulean vs. MSA) and changes in prey representation. All assessed faunal assemblages are dominated by medium-sized bovids, and variations between smaller and larger body size classes are linked to site context (cave vs. open-air), with an increase in cave sites during the Middle Pleistocene. Current data do not signal a broadening of the hominin dietary niche during the Middle Pleistocene; no meaningful variation was visible in the exploitation of smaller-sized bovids or dangerous game, with coastal resources exploited when available. Proportions of anthropo-genic bone surface modifications, and hence carcass processing intensity, do increase over time although more zooarcheological data is crucial before making behavioral inferences. Overall, this paper illustrates the potential of broad scale comparative faunal analyses to provide additional insights into processes of human behavioral evolution and the mechanisms underlying patterns of technological, chronological and contextual change.
Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology, 2020
The ongoing refinement of archaeological excavation and recording methods over the last decades h... more The ongoing refinement of archaeological excavation and recording methods over the last decades has led to a significant increase in quantitative Middle Palaeolithic datasets that provide a record of past Neanderthal behaviour. Stone tools and butchered animal remains are the two main categories of Middle Palaeolithic archaeological remains and both provide distinctive insights into site formation and Neanderthal behaviour. However, the integration of these quantitative lithic and zooarchaeological datasets is key for achieving a full understanding of both site-specific and broader-scale patterns of Middle Palaeolithic subsistence. To explore novel ways to enhance the incorporation of these datasets, we organised a session at the 82nd annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology in Vancouver. An underlying theme was the problem of linking lithic and faunal variability. Are variations in subsistence strategies reflected by changes in tool-making decisions? This paper will briefly introduce the possible ways these Middle Palaeolithic datasets can be integrated, illustrated with the papers included in this special volume, and discuss its potential for understanding the variability and interconnectedness of Neanderthal technologies and subsistence strategies.
Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology, 2020
Recent zooarchaeological and isotope analyses have largely settled the debate surrounding Neander... more Recent zooarchaeological and isotope analyses have largely settled the debate surrounding Neanderthal hunting capacities, repeatedly demonstrating their successful acquisition of large ungulates. Nevertheless, the functional identification of individual tools as hunting weapons remains a methodological challenge. In-depth studies have focussed mainly on small subsets of lithic artefacts from selected assemblages assessing features of breakage patterns, retouch, shape and use wear. Studies focussing on associated hunting lesions are rarer and often focus on reconstructing very specific bone surface marks encountered in the archaeological record. This study aims to add to our understanding of the formation and characteristics of projectile impact marks (PIMs) on bone through a series of highly monitored, replicative experiments, using thrusting and throwing spears with replica Levallois points into two wild pig carcasses. In total, 152 shots were made, and for each a series of attributes was recorded, including velocity and location of impact. Subsequent quantitative analyses focussed on understanding the various factors underlying the formation of different types of projectile impact marks. These experiments demonstrate that PIM formation results from the properties of both the impacting projectile and bone element. PIMs can signal impacts caused by different delivery methods but only on some parts of the skeleton. These results are contextualised in relation to the occurrence and recognition of Palaeolithic PIMs and patterns of Neanderthal behaviour. These experiments are only a first step in improving the recognition of these signatures in the archaeological record and providing better insights into understanding of the mechanisms of Neanderthal hunting.
Across Europe the period 45–40 ka (thousands of years ago) is associated with several technologic... more Across Europe the period 45–40 ka (thousands of years ago) is associated with several technological changes, including the emergence of the Châtelperronian technocomplex in France and northern Spain. The Châtelperronian, stratigraphically located between the Mousterian and Aurignacian, is characterized by Upper Palaeolithic features, such as volumetric blade reduction, curved backed blades, end-scrapers, bladelets, bone tools and ornaments. Concurrently, repeated, though debated, associations with Neanderthal remains and Mousterian elements suggest a local technological development. Following recent critiques and cumulating technological studies, this paper provides data-driven contextualisations of the Châtelperronian and late Mousterian archaeological records and a primary comparative assessment of a major linking element, backed knives, to re-assess the origin of the Châtelperronian.
The results demonstrate the challenging nature of the 50–35 ka record, with many interpretive problems caused by poorly recorded excavations, resulting in only 25 well-contextualised assemblages from the claimed 143 Châtelperronian find spots. These 25 assemblages facilitate more detailed chronostratigraphic and typo-technological assessments and show that the Châtelperronian has a homogenous set of technologies and tools. A similar evaluation of the late Mousterian indicates a wide-ranging late Neanderthal skill set, commonly including laminar blank production and backing. Further, conceptual similarities were noted both in blank selection and edge modification between Mousterian and Châtelperronian backed knives, alongside their near-absence in other, contemporaneous technocomplexes.
A Europe-wide contextualisation shows that while the current coarse-grained record still allows for several potential scenarios, the data throughout this paper point towards a most parsimonious model of a Châtelperronian made by Neanderthals, with roots in the late Middle Palaeolithic technological skill set. However, this change seems triggered by early arrivals of modern humans either indirectly, through stimulus diffusion, or directly, after ca. 42 ka. Fully testing this model requires an ongoing focus on site formation and assemblage integrity, alongside in-depth analyses of recently excavated assemblages and existing collections.
doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.011
Recent broad-scale comparative studies of Neanderthal lithic assemblages have contrasted previous... more Recent broad-scale comparative studies of Neanderthal lithic assemblages have contrasted previous views of the Middle Palaeolithic as a period of stasis. Throughout the Middle Palaeolithic, ca. 300,000–35,000 years ago, typo-technological changes can be observed in the Neanderthal behavioural repertoire, including trends that are restricted in time and/or space. Such spatio-temporal diversity seems especially apparent in the late Middle Palaeolithic (MIS 5e–3; ca. 125–35 ka BP) and is widely, though not exclusively, expressed through differing bifacial tool types. An often-quoted example is the restricted distribution of bout coupé or flat-butted cordate handaxes in MIS-3 Britain. This paper provides a broader contextualisation of this bout coupé phenomenon; first, in relation to the general reoccurrence of handaxes in late Middle Palaeolithic Western Europe, including comparisons with the Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition (MTA); and second, as a case study to explore behavioural implications of such spatio-temporal variation. Different explanatory factors for the observed patterns are investigated together with potential links to Neanderthal population dynamics. It is concluded that bout coupés represent a genuinely distinct biface form, which was sometimes maintained through the stages of use, and is most parsimoniously explained by regionalised socio-cultural behaviour, implying specific lines of cultural transmission among late Neanderthal groups.
"Despite a rich archaeological record, northwest Europe (Belgium, the Netherlands, western, north... more "Despite a rich archaeological record, northwest Europe (Belgium, the Netherlands, western, northern and eastern France) is often not included in detailed debates on Middle Palaeolithic lithic variability. This is, in part, related to a lack of contextual information for some assemblages, but also to a scarcity of widely accessible publications, especially in relation to early 20th century excavations. However, it is clear that across Europe, including in this northwest region, the late Middle Palaeolithic (here MIS 5d–3, ∼115–35 ka) is characterised by an increase in the use of bifacial technologies, and this paper provides a wider, integrative perspective on late Middle Palaeolithic bifacial tool variability in northwest Europe.
Primary data from seven key assemblages (Oosthoven, Grotte du Docteur, Sint-Geertruid, Saint-Just en Chaussée, Saint-Julien de la Liègue, Bois-du-Rocher and Champlost) is integrated with published data from an additional 45 assemblages, allowing for an extensive assessment of the characteristics of these biface-rich assemblages. Results suggest a large amount of typo-technological variability, as expressed through the varying nature of several technological attributes (raw material, blank type, cortex remnant, cross section and edge angles), as well as through the presence of different bifacial tool concepts and bifacial tool types.
The limited chronostratigraphic information available suggests the presence of bifacial tools in northwest Europe throughout the warm phases of both MIS 5 and MIS 3. Furthermore, a detailed regional overview identifies common ground within many of these northwest European late Middle Palaeolithic assemblages. Rather than a series of region-specific entities, this research proposes that a larger-scale distinction can be made between assemblages dominated by classic handaxes, and assemblages characterised by the generalised application of bifacial retouch. The latter contain a wider variety of bifacial tools and it is, therefore, suggested to group these assemblages under the overarching label of ‘Mousterian with Bifacial Tools’ (MBT). Detailed studies of new, well-contextualised assemblages are needed to fully unravel the causal factors and behavioural intricacies underlying this bifacial tool variability and the MBT entity."
Population dynamics between and within Pleistocene groups are vital to understanding wider behavi... more Population dynamics between and within Pleistocene groups are vital to understanding wider behavioural processes like social transmission and cultural variation. The late Middle Palaeolithic (MIS 5d-3, ca. 115,000–35,000 BP [years before present]) permits a novel, data-driven assessment of these concepts through a unique record: bifacial tools made by classic Neanderthals. Previously, studies of late Middle Palaeolithic bifacial tools were hampered by a convoluted plethora of competing terms, types and regional entities. This paper presents a large-scale intercomparison of this tool type, and bridges typo-technological and spatio-temporal data from across Western Europe (Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, France and Germany).
Results indicate a high level of variation among individual bifacial tools and assemblages. Each bifacial tool concept is correlated with various methods of production, resulting in large degrees of morphological variation. Despite such variation, a distinct three-fold, macro-regional pattern was identified: the Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition (MTA) in the southwest dominated by handaxes, the Keilmessergruppen (KMG) in the northeast typified by backed and leaf-shaped bifacial tools, and, finally a new unit, the Mousterian with Bifacial Tools (MBT), geographically situated between these two major entities, and characterised by a wider variety of bifacial tools.
Differing local conditions, such as raw material or function, are not sufficient to explain this observed macro-regional tripartite. Instead, the MTA and KMG can be viewed as two distinct cultural traditions, where the production of a specific bifacial tool concept was passed on over generations. Conversely, the MBT is interpreted as a border zone where highly mobile groups of Neanderthals from both the east (KMG) and west (MTA) interacted.
Principally, this study presents an archaeological contribution to behavioural concepts such as regionality, culture, social transmission and population dynamics. It illustrates the interpretive potential of large-scale lithic studies, and more specifically the presence of regionalised cultural behaviour amongst late Neanderthal groups in Western Europe. 
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Conference Presentations by Karen Ruebens
Here, we apply ZooMS to all morphologically unidentifiable bone fragments larger than 2 cm (n = 817) recovered from the 2012-2013 excavated Châtelperronian layer at Cassenade (Dordogne, France). Collagen was extracted using the ammonium-bicarbonate (AmBic) extraction method and over 99% of the sampled bone fragments could be taxonomically identified. While the proportion of Equidae is similar in the ZooMS and zooarchaeological collections, Bos/Bison is represented at a threefold increase in the ZooMS fraction (50.8 vs 16.7%). Conversely, Ursidae, the dominant taxa in the morphologically identifiable remains (36.6%), only formed 7.3% of the ZooMS fragments. While large proportions of the Rhinocerotidae (63.79%), Elephantidae (52%), Equidae (48%) and Bos/Bison (45%) remains have been digested by carnivores, this is only the case for 1.7% of the Ursidae ZooMS fragments. Three-dimensional data is available for all the ZooMS-identified fragments and confirm the near-exclusive presence of cave bear in the lower part of the sequence. Further, the ZooMS spatial data identified a restricted presence of mammoth in the middle part of the sequence and a diverging presence of reindeer and Cervid/saiga remains at the bottom and top.
Overall, this study illustrates the added value of integrating zooarchaeological and ZooMS datasets to obtain additional insights into past ecologies, changing site use, carnivore diet and human subsistence practices.
Securely identifying hafted weapon tips is complex and past analyses of MP points have mainly focused on individual artefacts, their morphometric characteristics, use-wear and residue traces. Conversely, studies that contextualise MP points at an assemblage level, cross comparing various blank and tool types, are sparse, especially for the European record, even though they are key to a more comprehensive understanding of the role of point shapes in the Neanderthal tool kit.
This poster presents two sets of initial results of this Marie Curie-Sklodawska funded project. Firstly, at the regional scale, it outlines the occurrence and typo-technological characteristics of point shapes across MP assemblages in Western Europe. Results indicate the low presence of triangular forms in many Middle Palaeolithic assemblages but also their more common occurrence in certain specific spatio-temporal entities (e.g. MIS-5 northern France or MIS-3 southeastern France).
Secondly, initial results from an assemblage level study of the lithic material from layer 1 of the Abri du Maras rockshelter (MIS-3, Southeastern France) are presented. Focus was on the material from the 1946-1950 excavation by R. Gilles which resulted in a lithic collection of around 3,000 artefacts. Past studies have pointed out the presence of several pointed flakes with convergent ventral retouch, assigning the assemblage to the so-called Neronian, a late Middle Paleolithic entity only known from the Rhone valley. A detailed attribute analysis focused on the recording across all blanks of a series of features which have been linked to projectile use or hafting (e.g. diagnostic impact fracture, lateral crushing, basal modifications). Results indicate a large variability in the convergent tools, both in terms of blank type (Levallois, discoidal and laminar flaking) as well as retouch extent and location. This poster will further present and cross compare these points within the context of the rest of the assemblage.
Teaching Documents by Karen Ruebens
It aims to introduce kids to the lifeways and hunting strategies of
Neanderthals based on the most recent scientific discoveries through a series of hands on activities (colouring, cutting, connect the dots, memory game).
Papers by Karen Ruebens
The results demonstrate the challenging nature of the 50–35 ka record, with many interpretive problems caused by poorly recorded excavations, resulting in only 25 well-contextualised assemblages from the claimed 143 Châtelperronian find spots. These 25 assemblages facilitate more detailed chronostratigraphic and typo-technological assessments and show that the Châtelperronian has a homogenous set of technologies and tools. A similar evaluation of the late Mousterian indicates a wide-ranging late Neanderthal skill set, commonly including laminar blank production and backing. Further, conceptual similarities were noted both in blank selection and edge modification between Mousterian and Châtelperronian backed knives, alongside their near-absence in other, contemporaneous technocomplexes.
A Europe-wide contextualisation shows that while the current coarse-grained record still allows for several potential scenarios, the data throughout this paper point towards a most parsimonious model of a Châtelperronian made by Neanderthals, with roots in the late Middle Palaeolithic technological skill set. However, this change seems triggered by early arrivals of modern humans either indirectly, through stimulus diffusion, or directly, after ca. 42 ka. Fully testing this model requires an ongoing focus on site formation and assemblage integrity, alongside in-depth analyses of recently excavated assemblages and existing collections.
doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.011
Primary data from seven key assemblages (Oosthoven, Grotte du Docteur, Sint-Geertruid, Saint-Just en Chaussée, Saint-Julien de la Liègue, Bois-du-Rocher and Champlost) is integrated with published data from an additional 45 assemblages, allowing for an extensive assessment of the characteristics of these biface-rich assemblages. Results suggest a large amount of typo-technological variability, as expressed through the varying nature of several technological attributes (raw material, blank type, cortex remnant, cross section and edge angles), as well as through the presence of different bifacial tool concepts and bifacial tool types.
The limited chronostratigraphic information available suggests the presence of bifacial tools in northwest Europe throughout the warm phases of both MIS 5 and MIS 3. Furthermore, a detailed regional overview identifies common ground within many of these northwest European late Middle Palaeolithic assemblages. Rather than a series of region-specific entities, this research proposes that a larger-scale distinction can be made between assemblages dominated by classic handaxes, and assemblages characterised by the generalised application of bifacial retouch. The latter contain a wider variety of bifacial tools and it is, therefore, suggested to group these assemblages under the overarching label of ‘Mousterian with Bifacial Tools’ (MBT). Detailed studies of new, well-contextualised assemblages are needed to fully unravel the causal factors and behavioural intricacies underlying this bifacial tool variability and the MBT entity."
Results indicate a high level of variation among individual bifacial tools and assemblages. Each bifacial tool concept is correlated with various methods of production, resulting in large degrees of morphological variation. Despite such variation, a distinct three-fold, macro-regional pattern was identified: the Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition (MTA) in the southwest dominated by handaxes, the Keilmessergruppen (KMG) in the northeast typified by backed and leaf-shaped bifacial tools, and, finally a new unit, the Mousterian with Bifacial Tools (MBT), geographically situated between these two major entities, and characterised by a wider variety of bifacial tools.
Differing local conditions, such as raw material or function, are not sufficient to explain this observed macro-regional tripartite. Instead, the MTA and KMG can be viewed as two distinct cultural traditions, where the production of a specific bifacial tool concept was passed on over generations. Conversely, the MBT is interpreted as a border zone where highly mobile groups of Neanderthals from both the east (KMG) and west (MTA) interacted.
Principally, this study presents an archaeological contribution to behavioural concepts such as regionality, culture, social transmission and population dynamics. It illustrates the interpretive potential of large-scale lithic studies, and more specifically the presence of regionalised cultural behaviour amongst late Neanderthal groups in Western Europe.