Papers by Tse-fu Kuan 關則富
Buddhist Studies Review, 2026
The Apadāna of the Pali canon contains a terse and obscure verse account of the Buddha’s headache... more The Apadāna of the Pali canon contains a terse and obscure verse account of the Buddha’s headache associated with the Sakyas’ massacre by Viḍūḍabha. While alluding to the fishermen episode in their past lives, it provides no lucid karmic backstory for the tragedy. This Theravāda account can be traced back to a Mahāsāṃghika text preserved in Chinese translation, T199 (Fo wubai dizi zishuo benqi jing), where we find a verse account almost identical to that in the Apadāna. The verse account is so condensed and vague that it seems to presuppose a more complete story. After examining relevant stories in Pali and Chinese, I identify two Mahāsāṃghika texts (in T125 and T197) as the source of the full karmic backstory, which is not intact in Pali literature. The T125 (Ekottarika Āgama) version is especially important in that sūtra 2 of Chapter 34 in T125 is a full-fledged avadāna, which provides karmic explanations for the Buddha’s headache and the Sakyas’ massacre in a three-part narrative structure. This avadāna tale was incorporated into the Kṣudraka-vastu of the Mūla-Sarvāstivāda Vinaya. Apart from this wholesale insertion, the relevant Mahāsāṃghika story as found in T125 and T197 (Xingqi xing jing) was borrowed in pieces by the Theravādins and the Mūla-Sarvāstivādins; these pieces were adapted and inserted into various texts of the two schools. Since these interpolations are taken out of context, they are incapable of fully conveying the original Mahāsāṃghika message.
Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, 2025
This study explores several correlated cases of parallels between Buddhist and Christian texts. T... more This study explores several correlated cases of parallels between Buddhist and Christian texts. These parallels feature certain salvific miracles, some of which involve healing the disabled, the sick touching the holy one's garment, or the holy one's arrival accompanied by the leveling of hills and valleys. Such similarities between Buddhist and Christian texts can be explained in terms of borrowings on the following grounds: (1) These concepts of "salvation" have an important Judeo-Christian background but do not fit into the contexts of early Buddhism. (2) All the relevant passages from Buddhist literature postdate their counterparts in the Book of Isaiah, the Gospels, and Acts. (3) Cumulative evidence indicates that Christianity spread to NorthWest India and Central Asia during the first four centuries CE. (4) Almost all the relevant Buddhist passages came from these regions during the same period. (5) The relevant Buddhist passages are mostly from Mahāyāna sutras and texts under Mahāyāna influence. (6) Mahāyāna Buddhism flourished in the said regions during the said period. (7) The eclectic Buddhists, mainly Mahāyānists and those with Mahāyāna inclinations, were susceptible to other religions, including Hinduism and Christianity.
JOURNAL OF BUDDHIST STUDIES VOLUME XXI , 2025
The prototype of Maitreya legend is only mentioned briefly in passing by early Buddhist texts of ... more The prototype of Maitreya legend is only mentioned briefly in passing by early Buddhist texts of various schools. The legend was adapted and reshaped again and again over a long period of time. In this study I compare seven closely related stories deriving from the proto-legend of Maitreya and propose some indicators that show the process of “Mahāyānization” of the proto-legend. The proto-legend was converted into an avadāna tale in an early phase as found in the Divyāvadāna and the Mūla-Sarvāstivāda Vinaya. Judging from its ambivalent features, EĀ48.3(T453) in the Ekottarika Āgama (T125) exemplifies a transition from an avadāna text to a Mahāyāna sūtra. T125 is a collection of early Buddhist sūtras mixed with numerous avadāna tales and Mahāyāna elements. The Mile chengfo jing, or the Sūtra on Maitreya Becoming a Buddha (T456), can be reckoned a mature Mahāyāna work, which transforms Kāśyapa into a Mahāyāna paradigm modelled on a great bodhisattva in the Lotus Sūtra. In conclusion, this research provides a sketch of the relative chronology of the seven closely related Maitreya stories, and Kāśyapa emerges as an increasingly significant figure in later versions.
Philosophy East and West, 2023
The Buddha seems ambivalent in his position about whether all our feelings can be ascribed to kar... more The Buddha seems ambivalent in his position about whether all our feelings can be ascribed to karma, even if indirectly. He unequivocally states: “Karma distinguishes beings as inferior and superior,” which covers various aspects of life that affect our feelings. On the other hand, again and again he criticizes some religions for holding the doctrine “whatever a person experiences is caused by karma,” or puts aside karma in favor of obvious causation. This issue can be addressed in several ways: The Buddha implies a distinction between past and present karma, and the unthinkable nature of karma entails the question “Who are qualified to pronounce karma?” Also, the Buddha is careful to avoid a fatalistic view of karma doctrine, his skill in means leads to the inconsistency of his mode of expression, and the two levels of truth allow him to speak in conformity with worldly conventions endorsed by “the wise.”
Archiv orientální, 2022
From the late 4th century BCE, the Greeks initiated long-term cultural exchange between the India... more From the late 4th century BCE, the Greeks initiated long-term cultural exchange between the Indian and Mediterranean worlds. Following the Greek conquests of NorthWest India and Central Asia, Buddhism spread to these regions. Here Buddhists, native and immigrant alike, came into prolonged contact with Western civilizations. The Bible in Greek or Syriac translation may have been available in NorthWest India and Central Asia in the early centuries CE or before the Common Era. Cumulative evidence also indicates that there were Christians and Jews in these regions during this period. They lived side by side with Buddhists for generations. Presumably under such circumstances, biblical elements found their way, perhaps indirectly, into Buddhist literature. A notable example is one version of the Aṅgulimāla Sutta, T118. The episode of Aṅgulimāla's encounter with his teacher's wife was probably adapted from Joseph's encounter with Potiphar's wife in Genesis 39. In this article, I show that the similarities between the Joseph story and the Aṅgulimāla story greatly surpass those between the Joseph/Aṅgulimāla stories and their counterparts in other literature, including six Greek tales, an Indian epic, two Jātakas and the Divyāvadāna of Buddhism.
Buddhism in Five Minutes, 2021
Illuminating the Dharma: Buddhist Studies in Honour of Venerable Professor KL Dhammajoti, 2021
The earliest Buddhist tradition recognized Sāriputta and Moggallāna as the two chief disciples of... more The earliest Buddhist tradition recognized Sāriputta and Moggallāna as the two chief disciples of the Buddha. No distinction or disparity was made between them in terms of their status as paradigms. The attributes that marked them as paradigms were wisdom (paññā) and psychic potency (iddhi) respectively. Since psychic potency always involves concentration (samādhi) and is based on it, that Moggallāna was foremost in iddhi amounts to that he was foremost in samādhi. This is corroborated by the fact that the Moggallāna-saṃyutta in the Saṃyutta Nikāya features samādhi. Therefore, what distinguishes them as the pair of chief disciples denotes that the two prominent factors of the path, i.e. wisdom (paññā) and concentration (samādhi), were equally essential just as Sāriputta and Moggallāna. Originally iddhi was seen to emanate from samādhi, while paññā was also seen to be based on samādhi. In the end, iddhi along with samādhi was rendered significantly inferior and subjugated to paññā, which became the decisive factor that dominates iddhi and samādhi. Therefore, in the history of Buddhist literature, there was a tendency to deprecate Moggallāna’s achievements in iddhi and samādhi (concentration) compared to those of Sāriputta, who was foremost in paññā (wisdom). It was against this background that Buddhist narratives gradually consolidated Sāriputta’s pre-eminence over Moggallāna, and that psychic potency (iddhi) came to be regarded as more subject to wisdom than to concentration. The later versions of the legends devalued Moggallāna’s iddhi to such a degree that his iddhi cannot work when facing the fatal assault of people, which is in stark contrast to Sāriputta’s invincible iddhi that helps him survive the deadly attack of a mighty yakkha.
Religions of South Asia, 2021
The Chinese Ekottarika Āgama (EĀ) stands out among the four Pali Nikāyas and the corresponding fo... more The Chinese Ekottarika Āgama (EĀ) stands out among the four Pali Nikāyas and the corresponding four Chinese Āgamas, which are supposed to be collections of early Buddhist texts. My study of anomalies in a sutta of EĀ reveals that it is a composite of various textual sources. The original translation of this sutta, presumably non-numerical, was merged with a much shorter, numerical sutta in the process of forming the extant sutta. Zhu Fonian was not satisfied with his original translation of EĀ, which was carried out under difficult circumstances. As time went by, he had access to other Indic sources and Chinese translations, which could have enabled him to improve this translation. On the other hand, he modified part of his translation in such a creative way that it deviates significantly from the Indic original. Thus our sutta incorporated some new elements, including an episode adapted from a passage in Dharmarakṣa's translation of a Mahāyāna text. Therefore, Moggallāna's travel to the Brahmā Heaven in the original translation was turned into a journey to another buddha-field in the revised version. The religious milieu may have prompted Zhu Fonian to draw upon the Mahāyāna texts, especially those translated by Dharmarakṣa, when revising his translation of EĀ.
Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies, 2021
Of the four Nikāyas in Pali and the four Āgamas in Chinese, the numerical collections, i.e. the A... more Of the four Nikāyas in Pali and the four Āgamas in Chinese, the numerical collections, i.e. the Aṅguttara Nikāya and the Ekottarika Āgama, are the most adaptable and considerate of individual needs according to ancient Indian/Chinese and modern American monks. Therefore, these two collections contain a considerable proportion of suttas/sūtras that are closely connected with the notion of compassion (karuṇā/anukampā). These two collections include many suttas addressed to Buddhists dealing with the ethical and spiritual concerns of life within the world, and thus involves the issues of merit (puñña). In this study I have illustrated the significant but often underestimated position of compassion with merit in early Buddhist doctrine. Compassion is not just a type of meditation or contemplation, but it should be put into practical action, either by peaching the Dharma or by providing worldly necessities. The Buddha said: “If anyone attends to a sick person, he attends to me.” The soteriological function of compassion associated with merit is expounded in the early suttas/sūtras, particularly those in the Aṅguttara Nikāya and the Ekottarika Āgama. On the other hand, many discourses in these two collections reify great compassion by extending Buddhist concern from monastics to the laity, caring for all beings’ worldly welfare based on an ethical system of merit.
Journal of Indian Philosophy, 2020
Seemingly contrary ideas of Nirvana are found in early Buddhist literature. Whereas some texts de... more Seemingly contrary ideas of Nirvana are found in early Buddhist literature. Whereas some texts describe one who attains Nirvana as being conscious of everything, others depict Nirvana as a state in which consciousness has no object but emptiness or Nirvana. In this paper I deal with this paradox of Nirvana consciousness by exploring the correlations between several statements in early Buddhist texts. A number of sutta passages are cited to show that they contain doctrinal elements which, when considered collectively, may cast valuable light on how to reconcile this paradox. Two pivotal notions are ‘non-abiding consciousness’ and ‘consciousness that is infinite, pervasive all around’. These two notions are connected to each other and seem to subsume or bridge the two strikingly distinct forms of Nirvana consciousness mentioned above. Nirvana consciousness said to be ‘non-abiding’, which is analogous to ‘without object’, does ‘not abide’ (non-abiding) in any objects in the sense that it does not cling to them or rest on them. The ‘infinite, all-pervasive’ consciousness, based on stopping normal consciousness, does not depend on any sense objects, and hence it is unconditioned by them and operates unhindered. Nirvana consciousness thus constitutes the infinite realization free from all conditioning and hindrance. This resonates with the idea that one who attains Nirvana is conscious of everything.
Buddhist Studies Review, 2019
In both the Aṅguttara Nikāya in Pali and the Ekottarika Āgama in Chinese translation, the suttas ... more In both the Aṅguttara Nikāya in Pali and the Ekottarika Āgama in Chinese translation, the suttas are grouped into eleven nipātas (‘books’), from the Ekaka-nipāta/Eka-nipāta (Book of Ones) to the Ekādasaka-nipāta (Book of Elevens) – though in the Ekottarika Āgama the nipātas are not labelled as such. This grouping into nipātas is based on the number of doctrinal items dealt with in the component suttas. In the Ones and Twos, it is often the case that a single original sutta has been subdivided so that its component sections become a series of similarly structured derivative suttas superficially appropriate for inclusion in the Ones or Twos. Moreover, material for this process of subdividing has sometimes been provided by multiplying doctrinal sets with formulaic statements. In most of the remaining nipātas the phenomena noted in the Ones and Twos are also present, but on a much smaller scale. In view of their Chinese counterparts in the Saṃyukta Ᾱgama, some groups of suttas in the Aṅguttara Nikāya with saṃyutta-like nature were probably moved from the Saṃyutta Nikāya to the Aṅguttara Nikāya within the Pali tradition. Evidence of a comparable movement into the Ekottarika Āgama is also available. The artificial suttas created by subdivision and the original numerical suttas shared by the Ekottarika Āgama and the Aṅguttara Nikāya largely retained their original places at the beginning of each nipāta, while some genuine suttas probably earlier located in the Saṃyukta Ᾱgama and Madhyama Āgama were added progressively at the end of the growing nipāta.
Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 2019
For over a century many Buddhist texts in Pali have been translated into English, the four main N... more For over a century many Buddhist texts in Pali have been translated into English, the four main Nikāyas at least twice. Significant improvements have been made in regard to English translations of Pali texts. This paper provides five case studies that illustrate the problems and complexities involved in translating Pali texts. Examples are taken from four suttas of the Aṅguttara Nikāya. Various issues are addressed using textual and contextualised analyses. I attempt to offer solutions to some problems related to translating the Pali through different approaches, including style, philology, history, Buddhist thought and inter-religious relation.
臺灣宗教研究, 2018
佛教與基督宗教對臺灣社會的影響與貢獻甚鉅。筆者開設一門通識課，以此二宗教與伊斯蘭教為課程內容。在2014年為這門課規劃一項期末作業，根據各組學生聯絡基督教會和佛教道場的經歷與他們的訪談記錄，以此... more 佛教與基督宗教對臺灣社會的影響與貢獻甚鉅。筆者開設一門通識課，以此二宗教與伊斯蘭教為課程內容。在2014年為這門課規劃一項期末作業，根據各組學生聯絡基督教會和佛教道場的經歷與他們的訪談記錄，以此為本研究的參考起點，進而聯繫到筆者對臺灣佛教與基督宗教的長年觀察，並以此二宗教的歷史發展作為借鏡，可發現一些深具意義的現象。從創教之初，此二宗教都富有傳道的使命感，後來為了探究與宣揚自己宗教的「真理」，分別發展出頗具規模的教育研究機構，但這類機構在臺灣發揮的功能，兩教差距甚大。此二宗教原本都鼓勵信徒時常到教會或道場學習宗教義理，固定每隔七天或大約每隔七天舉行一次聚會，基督宗教稱為「主日崇拜／主日彌撒」，佛教稱為「齋日／布薩」。「法會」一詞原指此類講經說法的聚會。但在當今臺灣，這種佛教聚會已經沒落，而基督宗教依舊維持其傳統。佛教與基督宗教各自早已派別林立，近幾十年來，此二宗教在臺灣的教派意識發展有相反的趨勢：前者傾向於自我定位為民族性的「漢傳佛教」，各派竭力發展其特色以別於其他教派，後者則強調普世的基督信仰，追求超越教派藩籬，不同教派能在宣教與慈善濟世方面合作。
孤寂一沙鷗，
困惑問蒼天：
蔓草覆古道，
如何覓舊跡？ 
Uploads
Papers by Tse-fu Kuan 關則富
孤寂一沙鷗，
困惑問蒼天：
蔓草覆古道，
如何覓舊跡？