Animal Health Economics

Governance is the foundational architecture upon which organizations operate, evolve, and
sustain performance. Regardless of the organization’s size, sector, or maturity level,
governance provides the outer framework that shapes decision-making, accountability,
authority, transparency, and institutional behaviour. It is not limited to boards, policies, or
compliance mechanisms; rather, governance represents the integrated philosophy through
which an organization is directed, controlled, and aligned with its vision and objectives.
In modern organizations, governance must be viewed as a layered and interconnected system.
At the highest level, governance establishes the strategic direction, ethical principles, oversight
mechanisms, and organizational boundaries. Within this outer frame, operational governance
instruments emerge, including Delegation of Authority (DoA), Segregation of Duties (SoD),
roles and responsibilities, reporting structures, policies, procedures, and accountability
systems. These mechanisms translate strategic governance into daily operational practice.
Surrounding and reinforcing these structures is the principle of transparency, which acts as a
critical enabling layer. Transparency ensures that decisions, responsibilities, processes, and
controls are visible, understandable, and traceable across the organization. It enhances trust,
reduces ambiguity, strengthens accountability, and supports informed decision-making.

As tourism continues to increase its market share in the world economy, the sector of Wildlife and Safari tourism is growing in East and Southern Africa. This has influenced private tourism businesses to join partnership with the government in Malawi, by taking over management of Wildlife Reserves, with the objective of increasing stock levels of wild animals; thereby stimulating investment of translocating wildlife from certain game

This paper examines the interconnected relationship between cattle nutrition, food processing systems, and public health outcomes, arguing that the quality and safety of animal-derived foods are fundamentally shaped at the earliest stages of agricultural production. Drawing on interdisciplinary evidence from agricultural science, microbiology, nutrition, and policy analysis, the study traces how decisions related to cattle feeding practices, feed additives, and production systems influence not only animal performance but also the biochemical composition of beef and the metabolic responses of human consumers. 

The analysis further explores milk processing, comparing raw and heat-treated systems in terms of microbial safety, nutritional value, and regulatory implications, while critically assessing the continued necessity of vitamin D fortification in the context of modern food availability. In addition, the paper highlights the critical role of logistics, particularly cold-chain management and transportation, in maintaining food safety and preventing foodborne illness. 

At the governance level, the study evaluates food safety frameworks across Canada, the European Union, and the United States, revealing a structural trade-off between food safety, affordability, and accessibility. While stricter regulatory systems tend to enhance safety and sustainability, they may also increase costs and limit access for certain populations, whereas more liberalized systems improve affordability at the potential expense of nutritional quality and long-term health outcomes. 

Ultimately, this paper argues that public health is embedded within the entire food system, beginning at the farm and extending through processing, distribution, and regulation. It calls for integrated policy approaches that balance food safety, accessibility, and sustainability, emphasizing that effective public health strategies must address upstream agricultural and systemic factors rather than focusing solely on downstream interventions.

The 2009 drought invokes painful memo ries to pastoralists and conservationists living and working in southern Kenya. The livestock economy predominant in the region was severely affected and wildlife was lost in large numbers. Death of livestock caused meat prices to increase rapidly while nature based tourism revenues decreased significantly due to wildlife deaths. This paper assesses the actual losses of both livestock and wildlife species at Kuku Group Ranch (KGR) during the 2009 drought and the subsequent homegrown socio-economic alternatives to adapt to the drought. The study conducted between late 2009 and early 2010 shows the actual losses for cattle, goats and sheep were significantly high at 84%, 77.8% and 72.8% respectively resulting into huge monetary losses. Key wildlife species central to nature-based tourism such as Zebra (Equus burchelli) and wildebeest (conochaetes taurinus) were severely affected by the drought where they died more than any other wildlife species in the area. The drought increased the livestock and herbivorous depredations by carnivores in the area. The study concludes that despite re-stocking in the case of livestock and re-introduction strategies in the case of wildlife, other sustainable alternatives for adaptation to droughts needed to be integrated to replenish the livestock and wildlife nu mbers to levels that can ensure stabilizing Maasai people's livelihoods and also incomes fro m nature based tourism ecotourism.

The 2009 drought invokes painful memo ries to pastoralists and conservationists living and working in southern Kenya. The livestock economy predominant in the region was severely affected and wildlife was lost in large numbers. Death of livestock caused meat prices to increase rapidly while nature based tourism revenues decreased significantly due to wildlife deaths. This paper assesses the actual losses of both livestock and wildlife species at Kuku Group Ranch (KGR) during the 2009 drought and the subsequent homegrown socio-economic alternatives to adapt to the drought. The study conducted between late 2009 and early 2010 shows the actual losses for cattle, goats and sheep were significantly high at 84%, 77.8% and 72.8% respectively resulting into huge monetary losses. Key wildlife species central to nature-based tourism such as Zebra (Equus burchelli) and wildebeest (conochaetes taurinus) were severely affected by the drought where they died more than any other wildlife species in the area. The drought increased the livestock and herbivorous depredations by carnivores in the area. The study concludes that despite re-stocking in the case of livestock and re-introduction strategies in the case of wildlife, other sustainable alternatives for adaptation to droughts needed to be integrated to replenish the livestock and wildlife nu mbers to levels that can ensure stabilizing Maasai people's livelihoods and also incomes fro m nature based tourism ecotourism.

The 2009 drought invokes painful memories to pastoralists and conservationists living and working in southern Kenya. The livestock economy predominant in the region was severely affected and wildlife was lost in large numbers. Death of livestock caused meat prices to increase rapidly while nature based tourism revenues decreased significantly due to wildlife deaths. This paper assesses the actual losses of both livestock and wildlife species at Kuku Group Ranch (KGR) during the 2009 drought and the subsequent homegrown socio-economic alternatives to adapt to the drought. The study conducted between late 2009 and early 2010 shows the actual losses for cattle, goats and sheep were significantly high at 84%, 77.8% and 72.8% respectively resulting into huge monetary losses. Key wildlife species central to nature-based tourism such as Zebra (Equus burchelli) and wildebeest (conochaetes taurinus) were severely affected by the drought where they died more than any other wildlife species in...

The objective of this study was to investigate effects of feeding-rearing programs that aim for first calving at 20-27 months (mo) of age on growth, reproduction and production performance of Holstein cows at nulliparous and primiparous stages. We hypothesised that, in a seasonal autumn-calving strategy, heifers born late in the season could catch up to the growth of heifers born earlier and be inseminated during the same period, at a body weight (BW) of at least 370 kg. This approach would result in first calving age at 21-22 mo of age without impairing their later performance. To test this hypothesis, we studied 217 heifers over 3 years. They were split into three treatment groups: control feeding (SD), an intensive-plane diet (ID1) from birth to 6 mo of age or an intensive-plane diet from birth to one year of age. Heifers in groups SD and ID1 were born from September until the end of November, while those in ID2 were born later. The present study showed that late-born heifers (ID2) could catch up with the growth of the others due to the feeding treatment, although they were still 42 kg lighter than the SD and ID1 heifers at first calving. No difference in reproductive performance was observed among groups. Once primiparous, the cows reared with the ID2 treatment tended to produce less milk than SD and ID1 cows (ca. 400 kg less on a 305 d basis throughout lactation), and no differences in milk composition, feed intake, body condition score or BW were observed among groups. Age at first service (AFS) was classified a posteriori into three classes: 12.5 (AFS12.5), 14.0 (AFS14.0) and 15.5 mo (AFS15.5) of age. Heifers in AFS12.5 grew faster than those in AFS14.0 and AFS15.5. Once primiparous, the AFS12.5 cows tended to produce less milk at peak than AFS14.0 and AFS15.5 cows (ca. 1.5 kg/d less) although no difference in total milk yield during lactation was observed. No differences in milk composition, feed intake, body condition score or BW were observed among groups. These results support the conclusion that the feeding treatment can enable late-born heifers to catch up to the growth of heifers born earlier in the season. This strategy results in an earlier first calving that does not impair their reproductive performance but does decrease milk yield slightly during first lactation. Future studies should investigate long-term effects of this strategy.

The choice of rearing strategy for dairy cows can have an effect on production yield, at least during the first lactation. For this reason, it is important to closely monitor the growth and development of young heifers. Unfortunately, current methods for evaluation can be costly, timeconsuming, and dangerous because of the need to physically manipulate animals, and as a result, this type of monitoring is seldom performed on farms. One potential solution may be the use of tools based on three-dimensional (3D) imaging, which has been studied in adult cows but not yet in growing individuals. In this study, an imaging approach that was previously validated for adult cows was tested on a pilot population of five randomly selected growing Holstein heifers, from 5 weeks of age to the end of the first gestation. Once a month, all heifers were weighed and an individual 3D image was recorded. From these images, we estimated growth trends in morphological traits such as heart girth or withers height (188.1 ± 3.7 cm and 133.5 ± 6.0 cm on average at one year of age, respectively). From other traits, such as body surface area and volume (5.21 ± 0.32 m 2 and 0.43 ± 0.05 m 3 on average at one year of age, respectively), we estimated body weight based on volume (402.4 ± 37.5 kg at one year of age). Body weight estimates from images were on average 9.7% higher than values recorded by the weighing scale (366.8 ± 47.2 kg), but this difference varied with age (19.1% and 1.8% at 6 and 20 months of age, respectively). To increase accuracy, the predictive model developed for adult cows was adapted and completed with complementary data on young heifers. Using imaging data, it was also possible to analyze changes in the surface-to-volume ratio that occurred as body weight and age increased. In sum, 3D imaging technology is an easy-to-use tool for following the growth and management of heifers and should become increasingly accurate as more data are collected on this population.

The objective of this study was to investigate effects of feeding-rearing programs that aim for first calving at 20-27 months (mo) of age on growth, reproduction and production performance of Holstein cows at nulliparous and primiparous stages. We hypothesised that, in a seasonal autumn-calving strategy, heifers born late in the season could catch up to the growth of heifers born earlier and be inseminated during the same period, at a body weight (BW) of at least 370 kg. This approach would result in first calving age at 21-22 mo of age without impairing their later performance. To test this hypothesis, we studied 217 heifers over 3 years. They were split into three treatment groups: control feeding (SD), an intensive-plane diet (ID1) from birth to 6 mo of age or an intensive-plane diet from birth to one year of age. Heifers in groups SD and ID1 were born from September until the end of November, while those in ID2 were born later. The present study showed that lateborn heifers (ID2) could catch up with the growth of the others due to the feeding treatment, although they were still 42 kg lighter than the SD and ID1 heifers at first calving. No difference in reproductive performance was observed among groups. Once primiparous, the cows reared with the ID2 treatment tended to produce less milk than SD and ID1 cows (ca. 400 kg less on a 305 d basis throughout lactation),

Pastoralism-the practice of herding livestock across diverse landscapes in seasonal and spatial patterns dictated by ecological availability-is among the oldest and most ecologically significant human land-use systems. It supports the livelihoods of an estimated 500 million people across all continents and underpins the ecological integrity of rangelands that cover more than one-quarter of the Earth's land surface. Yet, globally, pastoralism remains among the least legally secured livelihood systems: pastoral communities are routinely excluded from land-tenure frameworks, their migration corridors are severed by infrastructure and enclosure, their common grazing lands are converted without compensation, and their traditional ecological knowledge is ignored in conservation planning. This paper-the first in a three-part series-undertakes a systematic comparative analysis of the legislation, policy frameworks, and governance models that twelve jurisdictions have developed to regulate, protect, and govern pastoralism and rangelands. The jurisdictions covered are: the United States, China, the European Union, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Namibia, Kenya, the Kyrgyz Republic, Kazakhstan, Brazil, and Argentina. The paper analyses each jurisdiction's primary legal instrument, its tenure model, its governance architecture, its conservation provisions, and its climate-change response. It then extracts cross-cutting principles and identifies best-practice models most transferable to developing-country contexts.

An experiment was conducted to assess the effect of aqueous ginger extract supplementation on growth performance, production efficiency and return over feed cost in broiler chickens. A total of 192, day-old broiler chicks were allocated randomly into four dietary treatments with 48 birds per treatment. The dietary treatments were T1: Basal diet, T2: Basal diet + 50 ml aqueous extract of ginger in 1000 ml of water per day, T3: Basal diet + 100 ml aqueous extract of ginger in 1000 ml of water per day and T4: Basal diet + 200 ml aqueous extract of ginger in 1000 ml of water per day. The parameters studied were body weights, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, protein intake and efficiency, production efficiency and return over feed cost. Results revealed that the final body weight and overall body weight gain were significantly (P<0.001) improved in T3 and T4 groups followed by T2 group as compared to control (T1) group. The total feed intake was 3880.13, 3866.97, 3832.72 and 3761.29 g/bird in T1, T2, T3 and T4 groups, respectively, indicating significant (P<0.001) reduction in feed intake with increasing levels of aqueous ginger extract supplementation in broiler chickens. The overall FCR values were 1.81, 1.75, 1.68 and 1.64 in T1, T2, T3 and T4 groups, respectively, showing significant (P<0.001) improvement in feed conversion efficiency with increasing levels of ginger extract. The mean protein efficiency ratio in broiler chickens were significantly (P=0.002) improved in T4 (2.57) followed by T3 (2.50) and T2 (2.41) groups as compared to the T1 (2.32) group. The overall production efficiency factor was significantly (P=0.004) higher with increasing levels of aqueous ginger extract supplementation than the control group. The return over the feed cost of T1 group (control) compared to T2, T3 and T4 was 25.20, 48.48 and 63.48 % respectively. Based on the results of the study, it could be concluded that supplementation of aqueous ginger extract in water improved body weight gain, feed conversion ratio, protein and production efficiency and return over feed cost in broiler chickens.

Epididymal sperm reserve as affected by breed, season, age and body condition score (BCS) was investigated. Significant breed season, age and BCS were evident. Rahaji (RJ) bulls had highest values on both right and left epididymal sperm reserves (RESR and LESR) which had 150.59± 2.48x10 and 150.56±2.32x10 respectively. In the late rain (LR) and Early dry (ED) Seasons showed similar effect on RESR (134.80±2.32x10 and 137.92±2.48x10) while on LESR, early dry season had the highest (138.06±2.33x10) value. Highest RESR (138.25±2.02x10) and LESR (138.40±1.89x10) values were shown on age group ≥4years. Body condition score of 5 had highest effect on RESR (153.53±2.63x10) and LESR (150.73±2.46x10). Highest right (66.05±1.17x10) and left (65.78±1.16x10) carput sperm reserve (RCSR and LCSR) was observed on RJ bulls. Seasonal effect was recorded on LCSR with ED showing the highest (60.81±1.16x10) values. Age group of ≥4 years had highest effect on both RCSR and LCSR (59.50±0.95x10 and 58.93±0...

Enteric viruses create a favourable milieu for other microbes, potentially increasing susceptibility to infections and causing significant economic losses. However, despite the substantial economic impact of these production diseases on poultry production, these claims are seldom backed by empirical evidence. It is therefore essential to assess the microbial diversity, economic implication and level of awareness of possible causes of runting leading to hatchery condemnation in a commercial poultry hatchery hub with earlier reports of detected high levels of chicken astrovirus. Hence, 158 samples from day-old broilers were tested for enteric bacteria and viruses, and antibiotic susceptibility. Also, 318 respondents were assessed for level of awareness of possible causes of runting and cost-benefit analysis of hatchery operations were performed. Enterococcus (60.8%; 96/158) and staphylococcus (3.8%; 6/158) species were the main identified bacteria and resistance to the antibiotics tested particularly ampicillin was common in all the sites. Group-1 serotype fowl adenovirus (FAdV-4 and FAdV-5) were seen. Cost analysis showed a total loss varied between 647,520 and 1,059,640-Nigeria naira (1,683.92 and 2,389.45 USD) per production cycle across the different sites. Also, there was a low awareness of possible causes of runting among the respondents which may play a role against appropriate measures to reduce hatchery diseases. These findings underscore the importance of considering virus-bacteria co-infection in poultry infections to reduce misuse or overuse of antibiotics and allow for effective management of infections.

In many Countries, watershed development plays a significant role in rural development and natural resource management plans. The baseline survey study is crucial to address biophysical and socioeconomic-related issues before CALM P4R implements its community-based participatory integrated watershed management program at a chosen watershed. The goal of the study was to evaluate the socioeconomic situation, potential, and constraints of the chosen watershed, to evaluate the biophysical data of the model watershed that was documented, and to prioritize issues for interventions in the model watershed that were indicated in the Tulu Harbuki Micro watershed for further improvements to promote sustainable and productive livelihood through the integration of different watershed components in a participatory approach. Household interview and biophysical resources assessment followed by watershed mapping techniques were used for the data collection. Purposive sampling methods were used to select 36 households in the watershed. Descriptive statistics by frequency distributions means and percentage and diversity indices were used for data analysis. The findings showed that problems with soil erosion, deforestation, and soil fertility, as well as termites, were the main causes of land degradation. Crop diseases and a lack of agricultural inputs (fertilizers and better varieties) were two of the area's biggest issues. The following interventions were suggested as part of the watershed management programs: Soil erosion control measures, soil fertility enhancement activities, SWC practices, the planting of niche-compatible multipurpose trees, home garden Agroforestry, and other treatments. Once more, participatory integrated learning should be used to increase rural communities' awareness of and capacity for integrating natural resource management technology for effective soil and water conservation measures.

An accident can happen when you least expect it-on your commute to work, while shopping, or even during a routine activity. In just seconds, your life may be interrupted by pain, medical treatment, lost income, and uncertainty about what comes next. The emotional and financial stress can feel overwhelming 😔. During this challenging time, having skilled legal support can make a powerful difference in how your recovery and future unfold. Personal injury lawyers play a critical role in helping accident victims protect their rights and pursue fair compensation. They serve as advocates, negotiators, and guides through a complex legal system that often favors insurance companies over individuals. Understanding Your Rights After an Accident After an accident caused by someone else's negligence, you have legal rights. These rights allow you to seek compensation for injuries, damages, and losses you've suffered. However, many people are not fully aware of what they are entitled to or how to assert those rights effectively.

The Maasai Mara ecosystem is a complex socio-ecological landscape where human health, animal health, and environmental integrity are tightly interconnected. Pastoral livelihoods, wildlife conservation, and agricultural practices increasingly compete for limited land and natural resources, amplifying risks related to food insecurity, zoonotic disease transmission, environmental degradation, and climate stress. This project applies a One Health framework to evaluate agroforestry-based land management as an integrative strategy for improving ecosystem function while supporting livestock productivity and community well-being in Maasai Mara buffer and dispersal areas. Through participatory engagement with Maasai pastoral communities, the project assesses the impact of integrating native and multipurpose tree species into agro-pastoral systems on soil health, water retention, forage availability, and microclimate regulation. These environmental outcomes are evaluated alongside livestock health indicators, human livelihood resilience, and changes in human-wildlife-livestock interactions. The study further explores how agroforestry interventions may reduce ecological pressure on protected areas and mitigate One Health risks associated with habitat fragmentation and resource scarcity. By linking environmental stewardship with animal and human health outcomes, this work contributes context-specific evidence to support sustainable land-use planning and community-driven conservation in the Maasai Mara. The findings are intended to inform One Health policy, strengthen cross-sector collaboration, and promote scalable solutions that enhance resilience at the human-animal-ecosystem interface in Kenya.

This preprint documents and analyzes a multi-system governance failure during the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA)-Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) intervention at the Universal Ostrich Farm (UOF). Drawing on contemporaneous video, livestream recordings, witness testimony, statutory and policy analysis, and independent scientific reports, the manuscript evaluates federal actions across four operational phases: preoccupation , occupation, cull, and post-cull. The evidence reviewed indicates repeated and material departures from Canadian law, international animal-health and welfare standards, and CFIA's own operational guidance. Observed deficiencies raise serious concerns regarding evidence-based decision-making, proportionality, animal welfare, biosecurity integrity, firearms safety, and constitutional compliance. Based on the documented record examined, the operation does not demonstrably meet the criteria expected of a lawful, evidence-based avian-influenza response. The findings support the need for independent parliamentary, veterinary-scientific, firearms-safety, and judicial review to ensure accountability and prevent recurrence. This analysis does not assert findings of legal fault or liability, but evaluates documented actions against established standards to inform oversight and system improvement.