Community Reslience

Background: The longer term impact of flooding on health is poorly understood. In 2015, following widespread flooding in the UK during winter 2013/14, Public Health England launched the English National Study of Flooding and Health. The study identified a higher prevalence of probable psychological morbidity one year after exposure to flooding. We now report findings after two years. Methods: In year two (2016), a self-assessment questionnaire including flooding-related exposures and validated instruments to screen for probable anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was sent to all participants who consented to further follow-up. Participants exposure status was categorised according to responses in year one; we assessed for exposure to new episodes of flooding and continuing flood-related problems in respondents homes. We calculated the prevalence and odds ratio for each outcome by exposure group relative to unaffected participants, adjusting for confounders. We used the McNemar test to assess change in outcomes between year one and year two. Results: In year two, 1064 (70%) people responded. The prevalence of probable psychological morbidity remained elevated amongst flooded participants [n = 339] (depression 10.6%, anxiety 13.6%, PTSD 24.5%) and disrupted participants [n = 512] (depression 4.1%, anxiety 6.4%, PTSD 8.9%), although these rates were reduced compared to year one. A greater reduction in anxiety 7.6% (95% confidence interval [CI] 4.6-9.9) was seen than depression 3.8% (95% CI 1.5-6.1) and PTSD: 6.6% (95% CI 3.9-9.2). Exposure to flooding was associated with a higher odds of anxiety (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 5.2 95%, 95% CI 1.7-16.3) and depression (aOR 8.7, 95% CI 1.9-39.8) but not PTSD. Exposure to disruption caused by flooding was not significantly associated with probable psychological morbidity. Persistent damage in the home as a consequence of the original flooding event was reported by 119 participants (14%). The odds of probable psychological morbidity amongst flooded participants who reported persistent damage, compared with those who were unaffected, were significantly higher than the same comparison amongst flooded participants who did not report persistent damage. Conclusions: This study shows a continuance of probable psychological morbidity at least two years following exposure to flooding. Commissioners and providers of health and social care services should be aware that the increased need in populations may be prolonged. Efforts to resolve persistent damage to homes may reduce the risk of probable psychological morbidity.

Purpose: The key aim of the research was to identify the secondary stressors experienced by businesses affected by single or repeated flooding and to determine to what extent businesses were affected by these stressors, along with any resulting impact on health. Additionally, the research aimed to establish the likelihood of businesses being re-exposed to the secondary stressors through assessing awareness of flood risk, implementation of property protection measures and level of community resilience. Design/methodology/approach: The chosen research method involved the distribution of a questionnaire survey to businesses affected by either single or repeated flood events. The questionnaire included the Impact of Event Scale (a 15-item self-report measure which assesses subjective distress caused by traumatic events). Findings: 55 completed questionnaires were returned by flood impacted businesses. 89% of the businesses had sustained internal flooding while 11% had experienced external flooding. The results established that the key secondary stressors experienced by businesses, in order of priority, were: flood damage, fear of reoccurring flooding, prevention of access to the premise/closure, loss of income, repair works, length of closure and insurance issues. There was a lack of preparedness for potential future floods and consequent vulnerability to the emergence of secondary stressors among flood affected businesses, as flood resistance or flood resilience measures had only been implemented by 11% and 13% respectively. In relation to the psychological repercussions, the Impact of Event scores suggested that potential prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was noted among 8 out of 55 respondents (l5%). Originality/value: The results improve understanding of the enduring repercussions of flood events on businesses, indicating that not only residents may be susceptible to the detrimental health impacts of flood events and single flood events may be just as likely as reoccurring flooding to contribute to ongoing stress. Lack of financial resources is a possible explanation for the lack of implementation of property protection measures among businesses, despite 49% experiencing flooding on multiple occasions. Therefore it is recommended that policymakers should consider potential sources of financial support or grants towards flood defences for flood impacted businesses. Any form of assistance should be made available to businesses at the earliest opportunity as there was no significant association between the time of the last flood event and the likelihood of experiencing PTSD symptoms.

Record level floods have long lasting effects on local communities and individuals, who experienced them. Depending on the actual circumstances these events might put people to "live in the fear of rain"65, but the massive response and recovery efforts, that communities could observe and benefit from external sources could generate a false sense of safety. As the number of floods is expected to increase in the future, it is important to understand, how local communities cope with the burden of such events on a longer run. Floods are the most common disasters worldwide, both in terms of population and number of affected countries. Hydro meteorological disasters have strong European relevance due their impacts on member states, communities and regional policy issues. For Hungary, floods are considered to be the most important natural hazards challenging local communities and national response capacities. However the topic has strong contemporary policy relevance, there is sm...

It has long been known that disasters can have mental health consequences such as increased rates of PTSD, depression and anxiety. While some research has shown that secondary stressors during the aftermath of a disaster can influence psychological outcomes, this aspect of the disaster experience has not been widely studied. This paper reports on two studies that investigated which aspects of the experience of being flooded were most predictive of mental health outcomes. The first study was a qualitative study of adults whose homes had been inundated in the Mackay flood of 2008 (n=16). Thematic analysis of interviews conducted 18-20 months post-flood found that stressors during the flood aftermath such as difficulties and delays during the rebuilding process and a difficult experience with an insurance company were nominated as the most stressful aspect of the flood by the majority of participants. The second study surveyed Mackay flood survivors three and a half years post-flood, a...

Background The summer of 2007 was the wettest in the UK since records began in 1914 and resulted in severe flooding in several regions. We carried out a health impact assessment using population-based surveys to assess the prevalence of and risk factors for the psychosocial consequences of this flooding in the United Kingdom. Methods Surveys were conducted in two regions using postal, online, telephone questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. Exposure variables included the presence of flood water in the home, evacuation and disruption to essential services (incident management variables), perceived impact of the floods on finances, house values and perceived health concerns. Validated tools were used to assess psychosocial outcome (mental health symptoms): psychological distress (GHQ-12), anxiety (GAD-7), depression (PHQ-9) and probable post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD checklist-shortform). Multivariable logistic regression was used to describe the association between water ...

Background Climate change is associated with greater frequency, duration, intensity and unpredictability of certain weather-related events, including floods. Floods harm mental health. There is limited understanding of the mental health and well-being effects from river flooding, particularly over the longer term and in rural contexts. This paper describes the rationale, aims, objectives, study design and socio-demographic characteristics of the sample for a study measuring associations between flood experience and mental health and wellbeing of residents (particularly those most likely to be negatively impacted and hard to reach) in rural NSW Australia 6 months following a devastating flood in 2017. To our knowledge, the study is the first of its kind within Australia in a rural community and is an important initiative given the likelihood of an increasing frequency of severe flooding in Australia given climate change. Methods A conceptual framework (The Flood Impact Framework) dra...

Flood Re was established to promote the availability and affordability of flood insurance whilst supporting the transition to risk-based and affordable flood insurance for UK households at high risk of flooding. In order for the goal of affordability to be achievable, there is a need to manage down the risk to these properties. One way to reduce risk is to install measures at a property level, often termed property flood resilience (hereafter PFR). This report reflects findings from Phase 2 of a three phase project; it is designed to assist Flood Re to establish an evidence base for the value of PFR in order to help inform decisions about the PFR support to homeowners that could/should be provided by Flood Re in future. The findings of an evidence review, including synthesis of the existing literature and selected additional analyses of data extracted from the evidence sources, are presented in answer to the question, “How effective are property level resistance and resilience measu...

Purpose – This study aims to investigate the level of preparedness among property owners who had experienced flood damage to their properties in two cities in England following the summer floods of 2007. Flooding can have a variety of impacts on residential properties and businesses that may be unprepared and therefore vulnerable to both direct and indirect effects. Research suggests that the focus in analysis of damage to flood plain population (residential and commercial) tends to be on the direct tangible impacts, limiting their ability to recognize the true costs of flooding, thereby leading to unpreparedness to future flooding. Greater understanding of the level of preparedness against different types of flood impacts is likely to contribute towards increased knowledge of the likely resilience of residential and commercial property occupiers. Design/methodology/approach – Primary data obtained through self-administered postal questionnaire survey of floodplain residential and c...

Flood Re was established to promote the availability and affordability of flood insurance whilst supporting the transition to risk-based and affordable flood insurance for UK households at high risk of flooding. In order for the goal of affordability to be achievable, there is a need to manage down the risk to these properties. One way to reduce risk is to install measures at a property level, often termed property flood resilience (hereafter PFR). This report reflects findings from Phase 2 of a three phase project; it is designed to assist Flood Re to establish an evidence base for the value of PFR in order to help inform decisions about the PFR support to homeowners that could/should be provided by Flood Re in future. The findings of an evidence review, including synthesis of the existing literature and selected additional analyses of data extracted from the evidence sources, are presented in answer to the question, “How effective are property level resistance and resilience measu...

The intentions of local people towards disaster preparation are important in defining the readiness for responding in the disaster resilience approach. This research applied a questionnaire survey to local community members who live in the area of the Ayutthaya land use comprehensive plan. There are seven aspects in this study which relate to the decision to prepare and participate in flood risk reduction activities; these are (1) reliability of information, source of information and transparency, (2) experience, fear and anxiety toward flooding, (3) leadership and performance of service providers, (4) expectation toward compensation and help, (5) effect from other people, (6) expectation of damage and loss, and (7) familiarity and current flood management. In addition, there are seven types of activities, which are (1) sharing information, (2) checking survival kit, (3) evacuation planning, (4) applying sandbags or water pumps for flood protection, (5) donating to flood victims, (6) volunteering to help communities in flood mitigation or response, and (7) volunteering to help local government in flood mitigation or response. This study applies multinomial logit regression analysis to explain how influencing factors effect the possibility of community members participating in flood risk reduction activity. The output of this study shows that reliability, sources and transparency of information; effect from other people; familiarity with flood situations; the success of the current flood management; and experience, fear and anxiety of the respondent toward flood situation, all affect the respondents' decision to prepare flood risk reduction activities, while risk perception affects the intention to participate in local activities.

The exponential growth of Chinese inbound tourism to Australia has seen a commensurate increase in the presence of Chinese tourists in regional Australia. This exploratory study raises questions about the extent to which Australian destinations in general, and peripheral or regional areas in particular, are 'China ready', and why the vast majority of Chinese tourists tend to stay within capital city/gateway zones with only smaller numbers dispersing into regional Australia. This paper draws from the initial phase of a longitudinal study in the Great Ocean Road (GOR) region of southern Australia that examines Chinese tourists' perceptions of the region and their associated levels of satisfaction with their experience at the destination. In particular, the dissonance between Chinese tourists' expectations and their satisfaction levels is a key observation. The managerial implications of managing and marketing regional tourism to Chinese visitors are presented, and it is argued that the necessity to address and meet the demands of the Chinese tourist experience spectrum is pressing. The catch cry for tourist destinations to be 'China ready' resonates, and is especially pertinent for destinations beyond gateway cities where the tourism sector capacity tends to be constrained.

The long term psychological effect of the distress and trauma caused by the memory of damage and losses associated with flooding of communities remains an under researched impact of flooding. This is particularly important for communities that are likely to be repeatedly flooded where levels of mental health disorder will damage long term resilience to future flooding. There are a variety of factors that affect the prevalence of mental health disorders in the aftermath of flooding including pre-existing mental health, socio-economic factors and flood severity. However previous research has tended to focus on the short term impacts immediately following the flood event and much less focus has been given to the longer terms effects of flooding. Understanding of factors affecting the longer term mental health outcomes for flooded households is critical in order to support communities in improving social resilience. Hence, the aim of this study was to explore the characteristics associa...

In winter 2013/14 there was widespread flooding in England. Previous studies have described an increased prevalence of psychological morbidity six months after flooding. Disruption to essential services may increase morbidity however there have been no studies examining whether those experiencing disruption but not directly flooded are affected. The National Study of Flooding and Health was established in order to investigate the longer-term impact of flooding and related disruptions on mental health and wellbeing. In year one we conducted a cross sectional analysis of people living in neighbourhoods affected by flooding between 1 December 2013 and 31 March 2014. 8761 households were invited to participate. Participants were categorised according to exposure as flooded, disrupted by flooding or unaffected. We used validated instruments to screen for probable psychological morbidity, the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ 2), Generalised Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-2) and Post Traumat...

The pilot study reviewed in detail a sample of 702 home insurance claims for flooding from two insurers over the years 2013 – 2019 to enhance the evidence base around key factors affecting cost and duration of flood damage claims.https://www.floodre.co.uk/enhancing-the-evidence-base-for-property-flood-resilience

Flood events have far-reaching consequences, not only in economic or financial terms but also in social and health-related impacts. There is a growing body of research that suggests that property-level flood risk adaptation (PLFRA) measures have the potential to benefit homeowners by reducing the impact of flooding on households. Emphasis has, therefore, been placed on the implementation of PLFRA measures, and yet despite this, the take-up among the at-risk residents in England is low. One of the reasons identified in the literature is that homeowners do not clearly recognise the benefits of the measures. This research uses a survey of households affected by the summer 2007 flood event in England to investigate the perception of homeowners in connection with the benefits of PLFRA measures. The results highlight that there is a consensus among respondents that implementing adaptation measures has the potential to reduce health-related flood impacts such as worrying, stress and strain between families. However, there was a high level of uncertainty with regard to potential financial benefits from investing in adaptation measures, in the form of premium reduction by insurers. It was evident from the analysis that knowledge of the frequency of future flood events and expected flood damage rated highly among the factors perceived by homeowners to influence the uptake of PLFRA measures. Furthermore, the results show that there is a wide range of opinion among the respondents as to who is responsible for protecting homes against flood risk. For instance, the government flood protection scheme has the potential to provide a confusing message to floodplain residents as to whose responsibility it is to protect properties against flood risk. It is, therefore, recommended that at-risk population should be made aware of the limits of the responsibilities of other stakeholders in the domain of flood risk management at household levels. However, it is anticipated that the introduction of the new UK flood insurance scheme, Flood Re, may help to bring more clarity. There is a need to increase the motivation of homeowners to invest in PLFRA measures, which could be achieved through a range of actions, including the provision of subsidies and incentives, which would help in promoting more sustainable behaviour.

The long term psychological effect of the distress and trauma caused by the memory of damage and losses associated with flooding of communities remains an under researched impact of flooding. This is particularly important for communities that are likely to be repeatedly flooded where levels of mental health disorder will damage long term resilience to future flooding. There are a variety of factors that affect the prevalence of mental health disorders in the aftermath of flooding including pre-existing mental health, socio-economic factors and flood severity. However previous research has tended to focus on the short term impacts immediately following the flood event and much less focus has been given to the longer terms effects of flooding. Understanding of factors affecting the longer term mental health outcomes for flooded households is critical in order to support communities in improving social resilience. Hence, the aim of this study was to explore the characteristics associa...

Research in the UK, has shown that one of the reasons that people may not take action to guard against potential flood damage to their properties is that they lack first-hand information on the costs and benefits of available mitigation measures. From these perspective, fundamental issues of both universal and constraint uncertainties in property-level flood adaptation cost benefit analysis are discussed. Individuals who have direct knowledge of the potential flood risks that they are exposed to and subsequently have information on the costs and benefits of adapting their properties to flood risks, would be more likely to take action, and thus more inclined to undertake mitigation measures. The application of the concept of cost benefit analysis to flood mitigation measures at household levels has inherent uncertainties. A major exclusion in the past from flood mitigation cost benefit analyses has been the intangible impacts of flooding upon households, and this represents a form of systemic uncertainty. Research has shown that intangible impacts are both large and more important to affected households than are the tangible impacts; therefore quantification of the intangible impacts of flooding, for the purpose of developing a comprehensive cost benefit analysis model, is of a paramount importance in assessing the full impact of flooding on households, and hence currently represent a form of systematic uncertainty. The challenge of this research is how to quantify intangible impact/losses in the context of the cost benefit analysis approach.

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This paper presents interview survey data by social scientists using established health measures on the health effects of flooding for residents in 30 locations in England and Wales. Firstly, it examines the extent to which flooded residents reported suffering physical and psychological health effects during and after the event. Secondly, it explores the issue of whether these effects were long-lasting by comparisons with the general population and with those at risk but not flooded. In the study, about two thirds of the flood victims were found to have scores on the General Health Questionnaire-12 scale indicative of mental health problems (scores of 4+) at their worst time after flooding. The evidence of the study also suggests that some flood victims suffered long term mental health effects as a result of their experience of flooding. The study examines the influence of a wide range of factors: characteristics of the flood event, types of property, and socio-demographic and the i...

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Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the "Content") contained in the publications on our platform. Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Versions of published Taylor & Francis and Routledge Open articles and Taylor & Francis and Routledge Open Select articles posted to institutional or subject repositories or any other third-party website are without warranty from Taylor & Francis of any kind, either expressed or implied, including, but not limited to, warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, or non-infringement. Any opinions and views expressed in this article are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor & Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions It is essential that you check the license status of any given Open and Open Select article to confirm conditions of access and use.

Background: Psychosocial impacts of flood event suggest that they can have significant effect on people"s wellbeing, relationships and mental health. The commonest psychiatric morbidity in population who are exposed to disaster includes grief, Post traumatic stress disorder, depression and anxiety. Methodology:-This was a cross-sectional community based study. This study was conducted in different areas of Srinagar and south Kashmir which were most affected during flood of September 2014. A total of 1000 individuals were assessed who had been directly exposed to floods. In this study two standardized questionnaires were used; Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 (HSCL-25) for symptoms of Anxiety and Depression. Results: Out of 1000 patients, Prevalence Symptoms of Anxiety were present in 462 (46.2%), Symptoms of Depressive symptoms were present in 326 (32.6%), symptoms of anxiety more in females 374(56.8%) and in age group 35-49yrs 270 (50.2%) and symptoms of depression more in age group of ≥ 50 years 80 (40.4%), and in females 240(36.5%). Conclusion:-This study examined the impacts of flooding on mental health conditions among the vulnerable population in Kashmir. It is necessary to strengthen mental health care and psychological consultation facilities, in order to control and prevent mental illness. This will reduce the number of long term psychological cases.

During this time of extreme income inequality and a growing political divide in the country, support for sustainability is challenged by what Alex Schafran refers to as an ‘Incomplete Coalition’ – we have been focusing on sustainability now for a long time, and if it was a complete idea, if it was sufficiently inclusive, we would have the widespread support that is needed to solve the problem by now. People living in urban, suburban and rural areas, home owners and renters, rich and poor, all need healthy neighborhoods to live in, but instead, we have promoted idealized technical solutions and turned a blind eye to the racialized economic drivers that determine where people can live – it is an incomplete approach.  Today’s push for sustainability must place an increased emphasis on the design of our communities to address climate change, public health, and the relationship of the environment and social inequality.

The rapid urbanization of the Egyptian capital and the disappearance of the thin line separating between urban and rural areas, pushed different categories of the population to seek other places to reside. In the 90s, the new settlement of New Cairo appeared as a breakthrough. Its all-inclusive urbanism and planning trends integrated social, economic and physical aspects. On the one hand, New Cairo was originally designed to include a wide variety of citizens and activities all assimilated together and well-defined in one plan. On the other hand, today New Cairo is a developed city where gated communities seem to outnumber free residential areas. An example of all-inclusive built environment where social exclusion is prevailing! This paper aims at scrutinizing, as well as tracing this paradigm shift in the urban evolution of New Cairo. It starts with a thoroughly inductive analysis of the urban concepts involved originally in its planning, compared to the actual urban situation. Subsequently, we might be able to understand the emergence of a "ghettoïsation" phenomenon.

The exponential growth of Chinese inbound tourism to Australia has seen a commensurate increase in the presence of Chinese tourists in regional Australia. This exploratory study raises questions about the extent to which Australian destinations in general, and peripheral or regional areas in particular, are 'China ready', and why the vast majority of Chinese tourists tend to stay within capital city/gateway zones with only smaller numbers dispersing into regional Australia. This paper draws from the initial phase of a longitudinal study in the Great Ocean Road (GOR) region of southern Australia that examines Chinese tourists' perceptions of the region and their associated levels of satisfaction with their experience at the destination. In particular, the dissonance between Chinese tourists' expectations and their satisfaction levels is a key observation. The managerial implications of managing and marketing regional tourism to Chinese visitors are presented, and it is argued that the necessity to address and meet the demands of the Chinese tourist experience spectrum is pressing. The catch cry for tourist destinations to be 'China ready' resonates, and is especially pertinent for destinations beyond gateway cities where the tourism sector capacity tends to be constrained.

Free Open Access to the full article: http://asiantourismresearch.cmu.ac.th/Vol3%20No.1/Chapter6.pdf

This paper focuses on studying Cairo’s urban fabric, which is composed of a mixture of planned districts built by the government and private sector, and informal districts, self-generated to fulfil the needs of a rapidly expanding population. The case studies selected are continuous parts of the city that show variation in the urban fabric and a distinction between planned and informal districts. This paper argues that even though there is a high percentage of unplanned districts in close proximity to planned districts, the city as a whole functions and is connected. This indicates that there exists an underlying, naturally generated global structure, a super-grid, which can be used to better integrate between the different districts, both planned and informal (Peponis et al., 2015). The study will show variations between the selected districts in terms of emergence, morphology and syntactical structure. The study will analyse syntactically the selected districts as they currently exist both locally within the district and globally in the entire case study. A similar analysis was conducted on informal settlements in Santiago, Chile. One of the principle findings was that the more spatially integrated the existing settlement is on its edge boundary with the surrounding urban layout, in terms of vehicular movement and local accessibility, the higher the level of self-generated economic activity and community development (Hillier, Greene, & Desyllas, 2000). This paper aims to build upon that, by exploring ways in which the existing informal settlements can be better integrated with the surrounding urban form to benefit the entire community by harnessing the super-grid. The analysis indicates that the highway super-grid is based on the pre-existing canal system in Cairo, but it is incomplete and creates a boundary around informal settlements rather than becoming a connector. The analysis also indicates that the main roads in informal settlements have developed using the same canal system super-grid and that this can be used to reconnect them to the city. After the initial syntactical and morphological analysis of the existing fabric, different approaches to create ‘syntactic stitching’ between the districts are suggested following the previous analysis and underlying global structure. The focus is on adjusting the existing fabric, such as aligning existing streets, creating new thoroughfares to increase edge movement and consolidation into the main urban form.

The long term psychological effect of the distress and trauma caused by the memory of damage and losses associated with flooding of communities remains an under researched impact of flooding. This is particularly important for communities that are likely to be repeatedly flooded where levels of mental health disorder will damage long term resilience to future flooding.
There are a variety of factors that affect the prevalence of mental health disorders in the aftermath of flooding including pre-existing mental health, socio economic factors and flood severity. However previous research has tended to focus on the short term impacts immediately following the flood event and much less focus has been given to the longer terms effects of flooding. Understanding of factors affecting the longer term mental health outcomes for flooded households is critical in order to support communities in improving social resilience. Hence, the aim of this study was to explore the characteristics associated with psychological distress and mental health deterioration over the longer term.
The research examined responses from a postal survey of households flooded during the 2007 flood event across England.  Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and binomial logistic regression were applied to data representing household characteristics, flood event characteristics and post-flood stressors and coping strategies. These factors were related to reported measures of stress, anxiety, depression and mental health deterioration. The results showed that household income, depth of flooding; having to move out during reinstatement and mitigating actions are related to the prevalence of psycho-social symptoms in previously flooded households. In particular relocation and household income were the most predictive factors. The practical implication of these findings for recovery after flooding are: to consider the preferences of households in terms of the need to move out during restorative building works and the financial resource constraints that may lead to severe mental hardship. In addition the findings suggest that support with installing mitigation measures may lead to improved mental health outcomes for communities at risk.