Conservation Easements

Context Private land conservation maintains global biodiversity while securing areas for biome shifts. Conservation easements (CEs) are the dominant form in both the US and increasingly, globally. Objectives We illustrate the differences in the National Conservation Easement Database (NCED) and a fine-scale curated collection of CEs, the Granular Conservation Easement Datasets (GCED), which fills an imperative gap in the CE literature. We assessed each dataset's utility for different research objectives. Methods The GCED represents a comprehensive baseline of the CEs placed between 1997 and 2008/2009 in twelve counties in six US states. We empirically compared GCED and NCED spatial geometries and related attributional data with qualitative and quantitative analyses. Results NCED completeness varies geographically and categorically over time, lacking historical information about CE amendments. GCED comparison with the NCED subset with a year of CE establishment revealed a consistently higher CE count in the majority of GCED counties. CE spatial configurations also diverged between the GCED and the NCED. Spatial statistical analysis outcomes differed; for each dataset, CEs are generally clustering (Ripley's K) but Global Moran's I and Average Nearest Neighbor results diverged to varying degrees. Conclusions The NCED creates a double-edged sword for researchers as the only nationally and

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This study examined the significant life experiences (SLE) of individuals who had placed conservation easements on private property. Specifically, this study explored how early life experiences may impact one's conservation ethic to effect decisions on land protection. The researchers utilized a sequential embedded mixed methods research design, relying on both qualitative and quantitative data in order to develop an understanding of the phenomenon. All participants for this study were individuals who had placed a conservation easement on her or his property in Indiana. The mixed method analysis indicates that individual and informal experiences in and about the outdoors had the greatest perceived impact and were significantly different than more formalized experiences among the study's participants. The discussion focuses on the impact of informal experiences in the outdoors and the impact on the self-perceived development of conservation ethics as significant life experiences pertaining to conservation behavior and the placing of conservation easements. Implications of this exploratory study are discussed as they pertain to practitioners and scholars alike.

Estudio sobre las servidumbres de conservación, ecológicas o ambientales en el Código civil y en los Derechos civiles autonómicos, con referencia al Derecho Comparado, como instrumentos de protección del medioambiente. La nueva función de la servidumbre personal.Study on conservation easements in the Civil Code and in the regional Civil Codes with reference to Comparative Law, as instruments of environmental protection. The new function of personal servitude

In the USA, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) has restored millions of acres of wetlands through its Wetland Reserve Easement (WRE) programs. However, few quantitative studies have explored whether WREs have enhanced wetland hydrology and wetland plant communities. Additionally, USDA Compatible Use Permits for cattle grazing and other management practices are sometimes issued for WREs, but little is known about potential benefits/detriments of such practice on the success of wetland restoration. In this study, we tested if hydrological restoration of previously drained species poor pastures increased water depth and hydroperiod. Restoration involved plugging key ditches, adding water control structures and a berm. We also tested if hydrological restoration increased plant diversity (alpha and beta), floristic quality (using coefficient of conservatism) and increased the cover of wetland species (using species wetland stat...

As natural areas, agricultural lands, and open spaces continue to be developed at unprecedented rates, it is important for land conservation professionals to understand the individuals who might play a role in permanently protecting these lands and their ecological services. Many factors have been shown to influence land protection decisions among private owners, including land-use activities, demographic characteristics, and environmental intention and behavior. With the hypothesis that individuals already involved in land conservation programs would be candidates for permanent protection, we set out to model conservation easement decisions within a group of participants in southern Indiana's Classified Forest and Wildlands Program (ICFWP). We used a mailed questionnaire to survey 500 landowners, garnering 308 responses, about their interest in conservation easements. Our results indicated significant positive relationships between interest in conservation easements with variables representing perception of landscape change, outdoor recreation behavior as an adult, and environmental organization membership. By better understanding the ways these factors promote permanent land-use decisions, land conservation professionals can better allocate limited resources through strategic investments in targeting and outreach.

Protection of private lands through conservation easements has garnered recent attention from scientists and conservation practitioners. Questions remain, however, about the specific characteristics and activities driving landowners' interest in conservation easements and their willingness to consider granting them. Resolving these questions could improve prospects for private land conservation by helping land conservation organizations identify and better understand potential easement grantors. We conducted a survey of 513 private landowners in a peri-urban fringe area in the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York, USA. Logistic regression analysis returned seven significant predictors of landowner willingness to consider granting conservation easements. Participation in environmental organizations, recreational land-use activities, wild food gathering, and land entitlement were the strongest factors promoting interest in conservation easements. Long-term residency, male gender, and hunting or fishing, on the other hand, significantly decreased the likelihood of considering conservation easements. The findings suggest that landowners most interested in to granting conservation easements are active land users. Notably, among all the land-use activities reported, the most frequent and the most important in predicting interest in conservation easements are those undertaken for recreational and subsistence, rather than economic, purposes. This suggests that while easements might be appropriate for working lands, their role in reconciling land use with conservation requires a flexible definition of work.

This commentary expands upon Eaton et al.'s research note about the challenges of measuring sense of place (SOP). Our body of work includes qualitative and quantitative research that supports their finding that landowners have a strong SOP and conservation ethic about their working lands. However, we deliberate on the importance of considering a broader interpretation of "economic dependence" in the context of SOP, which may include financial and non-financial benefits to the landowner. Eaton et al. report mixed results in its predictive power for conservation decisions on working lands. Yet, several issues negatively impacting economic dependence may override conservation management decisions and explain the "mixed" results reported by the authors. We posit that the definition of economic dependence should include both income and wealth generation as well as landowner amenity rents (defined as the landowner's internally derived benefits or satisfaction from the amenities on their working lands).

It will be extremely difficult to commit the sin of choosing too much open space in getting started (or at almost any other time, for that matter), and any planner who can't think now of some land worth saving ought to get into another line of work." 1 I

The research reported here explored environmental terminology and scale use with farmers/ranchers, and the article provides tips for Extension educators in communicating with these audiences. Following analysis and critique of various environmental scales by six cattle ranchers, a revised environmental scale was developed and tested as a predictor of conservation behavior. A mail survey was administered to 1,000 ranchers, and a 60.2% response-rate was received. Results offer recommendations in measuring environmental identity as well as insight to perceptions of terminology related to environmental issues by farmers/ranchers. Introduction Farmers and ranchers are an important target audience in Extension; however, when communicating with this audience on conservation issues, many communication barriers can arise. The communication gap between those researching environmental behaviors or administering environmental programs and farmer/rancher audiences in Extension programming is wel...

This commentary expands upon Eaton et al.'s research note about the challenges of measuring sense of place (SOP). Our body of work includes qualitative and quantitative research that supports their finding that landowners have a strong SOP and conservation ethic about their working lands. However, we deliberate on the importance of considering a broader interpretation of "economic dependence" in the context of SOP, which may include financial and non-financial benefits to the landowner. Eaton et al. report mixed results in its predictive power for conservation decisions on working lands. Yet, several issues negatively impacting economic dependence may override conservation management decisions and explain the "mixed" results reported by the authors. We posit that the definition of economic dependence should include both income and wealth generation as well as landowner amenity rents (defined as the landowner's internally derived benefits or satisfaction from the amenities on their working lands).

This commentary expands upon Eaton et al.’s research note about the challenges of measuring sense of place (SOP). Our body of work includes qualitative and quantitative research that supports their finding that landowners have a strong SOP and conservation ethic about their working lands. However, we deliberate on the importance of considering a broader interpretation of “economic dependence” in the context of SOP, which may include financial and non-financial benefits to the landowner. Eaton et al. report mixed results in its predictive power for conservation decisions on working lands. Yet, several issues negatively impacting economic dependence may override conservation management decisions and explain the “mixed” results reported by the authors. We posit that the definition of economic dependence should include both income and wealth generation as well as landowner amenity rents (defined as the land- owner’s internally derived benefits or satisfaction from the amenities on their working lands).

Conservation on private land is a growing part of international efforts to stem the decline of biodiversity. In many countries, private land conservation policy often supports in perpetuity covenants and easements, which are legally binding agreements used to protect biodiversity on private land by restricting activities that may negatively impact ecological values. With a view to understand the long-term security of these mechanisms, we examined release and breach data from all 13 major covenanting programs across Australia. We report that out of 6,818 multi-party covenants, only 8 had been released, contrasting with approximately 130 of 673 single-party covenants. Breach data was limited, with a minimum of 71 known cases where covenant obligations had not been met. With a focus on private land conservation policy, we use the results from this case study to argue that multi-party covenants appear an enduring conservation mechanism, highlight the important role that effective monitoring and reporting of the permanency of these agreements plays in contributing to their long-term effectiveness, and provide recommendations for organizations seeking to improve their monitoring programs. The collection of breach and release data is important for the continuing improvement of conservation policies and practices for private land.

Esta ponencia presenta algunos resultados que se enmarcan en una investigación mucho más vasta sobre la gestión de la red de caminos rurales y los modelos de acceso al medio natural en zonas de montaña.  En España, como en muchos otros países europeos, el abandono progresivo de muchas áreas rurales, la urbanización progresiva de la sociedad rural, el auge del ocio en contacto con la naturaleza y la transformación reciente del modelo social de acceso y frecuentación del espacio rural y natural, como consecuencia de cambios culturales y tecnológicos,  conducen a una nueva apreciación de los conflictos que derivan de la frecuentación del espacio rural.

• Conservation easements protect agricultural landscapes through private agreements. • This study evaluates both landowner and land trust preferences. • Conservation on private land requires landowner and land trust cooperation. • Managerial control, public access, trust, and financial compensation are relevant. • Reducing search and transaction costs increases efficiency and transactions. a b s t r a c t Conservation easements offer sustainable land use and environmental conservation through land use restrictions. Opportunities exist to improve the efficiency by which parties interested in conservation easement transactions are matched, which may contribute to the overall protection of agricultural landscapes. This study utilizes stated choice questions to elicit preferences for conservation easements by both landowners, as potential easement suppliers, and land trust professionals as potential easement demanders. A random utility model is estimated for landowners and for land trust professionals. Results indicate both preference overlap and preference divergence between these two sets of respondents. Significant opportunities exist to reduce search and transactions costs, improve easement acceptance, and increase environmental protection via increased transaction frequency of conservation easements in this emerging market. When negotiating with landowners, land trusts need to be aware of concerns related to issues such as managerial control, public access, lack of trust, and financial compensation. Moreover, heterogeneity amongst participants regarding these issues suggests some agricultural landowners may be more or less concerned about these issues.

Land trusts, partnered with government agencies or acting alone, are working to conserve habitat, open space, and working landscapes on private land. Spending both public and private funds, such institutions frequently acquire less than full title by purchasing or accepting donations of conservation easements. These title and organizational arrangements are evolving so fast that it is difficult to assess their conservation accomplishments and long-term viability. To understand the contribution of these arrangements to the preservation and restoration of biodiversity, conservation biologists need to identify the biological resources likely to be conserved and those likely to be left unprotected through easements held by land trusts. We describe land trusts and conservation easements and why they are currently an attractive approach to land protection. Our review of the literature showed that little information is available on (1) the resulting pattern of protected lands and resources being conserved, (2) the emerging institutions that hold conservation easements and the landowners they work with, and (3) the distribution of costs and benefits of land trusts and easements to communities and the general public. The prescriptive literature on how to establish land trusts and negotiate easements is extensive. However, easily available information on protected resources is too aggregated to determine what is actually being conserved, and more detailed data is widely scattered and hence difficult to synthesize. The social science literature provides some insight into the motives of landowners who participate but offers little about the variety of institutions or which type of institution works best in particular ecological and political settings. Equally undeveloped is our understanding of the inherent tension between the public and private benefits of this widely used incentive-based conservation strategy. Interdisciplinary research is needed to determine the ecological and social consequences of acquiring partial interest in private land for conservation purposes. Patronatos Agrarios y Servicios de Conservación: ¿Quién Está Conservando Qué para Quién? Resumen: Los patronatos agrarios, en sociedad con agencias gubernamentales o actuando por su cuenta, están trabajando para conservar hábitat, espacios abiertos y paisajes de trabajo en terrenos privados. Con fondos públicos o privados, estas instituciones frecuentemente adquieren poco menos que el título completo al adquirir o aceptar donaciones de servicios de conservación. Este título y arreglos organizacionales están evolucionando tan rápido que es difícil evaluar sus logros de conservación y su viabilidad a largo plazo. Para comprender la contribución de estos arreglos a la preservación y restauración de la biodiversidad, los biólogos de la conservación necesitan identificar aquéllos recursos biológicos con probabilidad de ser conservados y aquéllos que probablemente queden desprotegidos por los servicios de conservación que tienen los patronatos agrarios. Describimos los patronatos agrarios y los servicios de conservación y las causas por las que actualmente constituyen un método interesante de conservación. Nuestra revisión bibliográfica mostró que hay escasa información sobre (1) el patrón resultante de terrenos protegidos y los recursos conservados, (2) las instituciones emergentes que mantienen servicios de conservación y los propietarios con que trabajan y (3) la distribución de costos y beneficios para las comunidades y el público en general. La bibliografía que describe cómo establecer patronatos agrarios y negociar servicios es extensa. Sin embargo, la información sobre recursos protegidos fácilmente disponible está demasiado agregada como para determinar que se está *

Land trusts, partnered with government agencies or acting alone, are working to conserve habitat, open space, and working landscapes on private land. Spending both public and private funds, such institutions frequently acquire less than full title by purchasing or accepting donations of conservation easements. These title and organizational arrangements are evolving so fast that it is difficult to assess their conservation accomplishments and long-term viability. To understand the contribution of these arrangements to the preservation and restoration of biodiversity, conservation biologists need to identify the biological resources likely to be conserved and those likely to be left unprotected through easements held by land trusts. We describe land trusts and conservation easements and why they are currently an attractive approach to land protection. Our review of the literature showed that little information is available on

This paper sets forth a transdisciplinary approach, based upon current trans-Atlantic research carried out in Britain and the U.S., on the complex and interdisciplinary relationship of the ethics-economics-policy paradigm. To provide the proper associations within the land trust framework, the paradigm is viewed from the little explored private lands perspective. The results of interviews carried out with conservation professionals in Britain and the U.S. indicate a strong desire to use a more integrated framework to facilitate the decision-making process. Approximately 96% of the 139 land trusts interviewed felt that their organization's conservation efforts would ultimately be enhanced through the use of a decision-support tool that extended beyond traditional ecological criteria and constraints and incorporated both qualitative social and quantitative economic information. To this end, this paper will both examine the current status of land trust decisions making and frame the fundamentals and dimensions (e.g., land resources, sustainability, community, environment, etc.) of the ethics-economics-policy paradigm. The conceptual integrated land conservation decision-support (ILCDS) model is introduced. Aims of the model, as prescribed by the ethics-economics-policy paradigm, are to integrate concerns of economic efficiency, equity (between and within generations), behavioral models of resource use and ecological integrity, and other patterns of human and economic development within a private land–land trust context.