Early Medieval Studies

В православната традиция иконата не е просто разказ в образи за неумеещите да четат, свещен предмет в храмовата украса, важен литургичен атрибут, подчинен на строги канонични правила или органична част от иконостаса, разделящ земното от небесното. Тя е порталът между вярващите и божествения свят, към който те отправят своите молби и благодарности.
От ранния период на българското Възраждане започва постепенното обновяване на доминиращия средновековен византийски канон. Известни и анонимни зографи внасят нови цветове и елементи в иконите, съставят наръчници за изработването им, които освен подробни технически указания, съдържат духовно обучение на зографа, тълкуване на светите текстове и наставления. Защото иконата не се рисува, тя е „богословие в багри“, което се пише.

In the Orthodox tradition, the icon is not merely a narrative in images for those unable to read, a sacred object in the decoration of a temple, an important liturgical attribute governed by strict canonical rules, or an organic part of the iconostasis that separates the earthly from the heavenly. It is the portal between the faithful and the divine realm, to which they direct their prayers and gratitude.
From the early period of the Bulgarian National Revival, the gradual renewal of the dominant medieval Byzantine canon begins. Known and anonymous iconographers introduce new colours and elements into the icons, composing manuals for their creation that, in addition to detailed technical instructions, contain spiritual teachings for the iconographer, interpretations of sacred texts, and guidance. Because an icon is not simply painted; it is “theology in colours,” which is written.

En este trabajo se va a repasar la importancia de la iconografía del Arcángel San Miguel en las acuñaciones monetarias del final del medievo. Partiremos de su presencia en la moneda bizantina desde el siglo XI, explicando el porqué de su aparición en este Imperio, y cómo en Occidente eran muy importantes sus santuarios y veneración. Sin embargo, no aparece en las monedas hasta mediados del siglo XIV, en la Francia de los primeros Valois y el inicio de la Guerra de los Cien Años, marcando ya una carga política muy importante, que no tendrá continuidad hasta la segunda mitad del siglo XV, cuando en Inglaterra, Francia y Nápoles, en períodos de tiempo muy cercanos, su imagen va a dominar algunas series monetarias con una iconografía prácticamente igual, donde los monarcas de estos territorios buscan justificar su poder y el respaldo divino que les ha proporcionado la victoria sobre las rebeliones organizadas por sus nobles, con la analogía de la victoria del Arcángel sobre los demonios rebelados contra Dios.

Die Herstellung einer frühmittelalterlichen Flügellanze, ein archäologisches Experiment 2. WAS IST EINE FLÜGELLANZE? 2.1. Aussehen Abb. 1.: Die Longinuslanze Flügellanzen sind geschmiedete Lanzen bzw. Speerspitzen, welche an der Tülle zwei flügelartige Anbauten besitzen. Die Tülle ist der rohrförmige Teil eines Werkzeugs, in dem ein Stiel befestigt werden kann. Das wohl berühmteste Exemplar einer Flügellanze ist die Reichslanze oder auch Longinuslanze genannt (siehe Abb.1). Diese Lanze gehört zum Krönungsschatz des Heiligen Römischen Reiches Deutscher Nation. Der Legende nach war sie im Besitz des römischen Legionärs Longinus, welcher mit dieser Lanze den Tod des Jesus von Nazareth am Kreuz geprüft haben soll, in dem er jenem damit in die Seite stach. Sie gilt neben der Reichskrone als wichtigstes Artefakt der Reichsinsignien. Die Longinuslanze ist aufwendig umgearbeitet und besteht aus mehreren Teilen. Das Lanzenblatt ist bei der Umarbeitung mit einer Aussparung in der Mitte versehen worden, um einen Nagel darin zu befestigen. Dabei soll es sich um einen Nagel vom Kreuze Christi handeln. Die Lanze ist außerdem durch zwei zusätzliche Klingen, oberhalb der Flügel erweitert worden und mit einem Silberblech und einem Goldblech umwickelt (Schulze -

Este artículo ha sido realizado con la ayuda y colaboración de Marisa (una Inteligencia Artificial de apoyo investigativo de Gemini) para la estructuración y redacción del contenido. El título de María Reina de Cielos y Tierra no es una simple distinción honorífica, sino una verdad de fe fundamental que revela la posición única de la Santísima Virgen en la historia de la salvación. A diferencia de las monarquías terrenales, su realeza no nace de la ambición o del mérito propio, sino que es un corolario directo de su Maternidad Divina: al ser Madre de Jesucristo -Rey del Universo por naturaleza-, ella es constituida Reina por gracia y privilegio. Esta soberanía, que la Iglesia celebra con júbilo, no la aleja de la humanidad, sino que la sitúa como la mediadora más cercana, cuya autoridad se traduce en un servicio incansable de amor. Para comprender la profundidad de este misterio, analizaremos los cuatro grandes pilares que lo sustentan: 1. Sagradas Escrituras: Los anuncios en el Antiguo Testamento y su cumplimiento en el Nuevo Testamento.

El document és una guia turística sobre el municipi de Les Masies de Roda, situat a la comarca d’Osona. Presenta el territori com un espai rural amb una forta vinculació al riu Ter, element clau en la configuració del paisatge, l’economia i la història local. La població es distribueix principalment en masies i petits nuclis dispersos.

Des del punt de vista històric, l’origen del municipi es remunta a èpoques prehistòriques, amb especial rellevància del jaciment de l’Esquerda, que mostra ocupacions des de l’edat del bronze fins a l’època medieval. El desenvolupament del territori ha estat marcat per l’agricultura, la ramaderia i, posteriorment, per la industrialització vinculada al riu Ter, amb fàbriques i colònies tèxtils.

La guia també destaca el patrimoni cultural i arquitectònic, com el monestir romànic de Sant Pere de Casserres, ermites, castells i altres elements històrics, així com tradicions, llegendes i figures rellevants com Bac de Roda. Finalment, es posen en valor els recursos naturals i turístics, incloent rutes com el Camí Vora Ter, que permeten descobrir el paisatge i la història del municipi.

En conjunt, el document presenta Les Masies de Roda com un territori ric en patrimoni històric, cultural i natural, ideal per al turisme rural i cultural.

In the current text, the author examines the wall decoration of the Church in Kladnitsa Monastery of St. Nicholas of Myra the Wonderworker with a view to a possible attribution of the frescoes to the Samokov icon-painter Kosta Gerov-Antikarov. Based on a stylistic analysis, iconographic parallels and comparison with signed or well-documented works of his, the hypothesis is substantiated as to which part of the fresco decoration is his work.

The paper places the early medieval Croatian area at the geopolitical crossroads of the eastern and western cultural and civilizational circles, then under the strong influence of the papacy, Frankish supremacy, Venetian pretensions on the Adriatic coast and Byzantine jurisdiction. The chronological and historiographical overview refers to the significance of Trpimir's grant and the reign of Prince Trpimir, when Croatian areas experienced intensive development and gained geopolitical importance. The establishment of the Nin diocese is mentioned as a counterpart to the canonical jurisdictions that were under the administration of the Croatian prince and the dioceses of Dalmatian cities on the coast under Byzantine administration, although they were all subject to the Patriarch of Aquileia as the metropolis of the Aquileian jurisdiction. The significance of Trpimir's grant is of course contained in the state-legal foundations of the Croat people, where the word regnum is emphasized, referring to the affirmation of the Croatian state identity, resulting from the national Christianization, recognition of the authority of the Pope and Frankish supremacy. The main features of Trpimir's reign concern stable internal political conditions, the establishment of new counties and the beginnings of the formation of a state structure. In conditions of social organization of a tribal warrior aristocracy that recognizes the jurisdiction of the ruler and the geopolitical conditioning of Eastern and Western authorities, waiting for a favorable moment for territorial geopolitical influence in the sphere of interest. A strategic policy whose goals Trpimir achieved by conquering cities on the Dalmatian coast under Byzantine rule and the national presence on the demarcations of the area of ​​northeastern Bosnia in conflicts with the Bulgarians.

This work studies one of the parchment documents considered to be among the oldest in Spain, known as the 'Testamentum of Fístoles' or 'of Count Gundesindo' (Archive of the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg), dated 816, which since its rediscovery in 2023 has not yet been properly analysed. Although it has a couple of gaps, apparently caused by its fastening and the removal of its seal, it is clearly a will in the usual sense of the term. Therefore, an interpretation is presented here in accordance with the Hispano-Visigothic legal system,

В 2009 году вышла в свет книга под титулом Archeologia Abrahamica. В ней была заявлена идея совместного изучения культурной истории народов, исповедовавших авраамические религии -христианство, иудаизм и ислам. Исследования охватили области Средиземноморья и Северной Евразии в древности и в Средние века. Очередной шаг в этом направлении сделан в новом выпуске, ориентированном на проблемы межконфессиональных отношений в том же обширном этнокультурном и историческом пространстве. Инициаторы издания -Научный совет РАН «Роль религии в истории», Институт славяноведения РАН, Институт всеобщей истории, Институт востоковедения РАН.

This document outlines the results of small scale excavation undertaken in August 2015 on the Pattern Bank, in the immediate surrounds of the main Monastic Complex at Glendalough, Co. Wicklow (Figure ). This excavation forms part of a long term UCD School of Archaeology research and teaching project in the Glendalough Valley. Work on the Pattern Bank was undertaken at the behest of the National Monuments Service and completes fieldwork begun in this location in 2014 ).

Newly Excavated Settlement of the North Carpathian Group in Bardejov and Its Contribution to the Late Roman and Early Migration Period Settlement of the Upper Topla Region.  The article presents North Carpathian
group settlement that was partially excavated during rescue excavation in Bardejov, site Nad papiernou in 2021, the first in the town. 46 settlement features were explored which included storage pits, postholes and other settlement pits. Based on their spatial organization, parts of settlement unit were excavated with above-ground structures which included possible
dwelling. Small part of other settlement unit from the same period were excavated in the south-eastern corner of the area.

Im 75. Jahr des Bestehens der ÖGUF und im 35. Jahr der AÖ bieten wir einen Rückblick auf die Jubiläumstagung sowie weitere Aktivitäten der ÖGUF und widmen uns natürlich auch der Geschichte dieser Zeitschrift. Passend zum Winter und den Weihnachtsfeiertagen beschäftigt sich der im Leitartikel mit der (Ur)Geschichte der vielleicht österreichischsten Sportart, dem Skifahren. In der Rubrik "News" erfahren Sie Aktuelles über die aufsehenerregenden Forschungen in der Tischoferhöhle sowie vom Johannesberg in Traunkirchen. Im "Forum" können wir Ihnen wieder eine Vielzahl spannender Beiträge anbieten, die eine Rundschau der archäologischen Szene Österreichs und ihrer neuesten Forschungen bieten: von der Linearbandkeramik am Hallstätter See zur Kupferzeit am Mondsee, von frühbronzezeitlichen Grabwiederöffnungen über bronzezeitliche Textilien zu römischen Mosaiken, von Citizen Science zu Digital Humanities. Wir hoffen, dass der interessante Einblick in das Museum Burg Golling -unweit der Fundstelle des Helms vom Pass Lueg -unsere Leser:innen zu einem Ausflug in den schönen Tennengau bewegt. Die vorliegende Ausgabe wird mit einem Bericht über die FWF-geförderten geoarchäologischen Forschungen zum Neolithikum auf dem Balkan abgeschlossen. Nun liegt sie endlich vor, die aktuelle Ausgabe der AÖ 36 für das Jahr 2025. Damit ist der "Rückstand" der letzten Jahre aufgeholt und das Team der AÖ kann ohne Altlasten in die Zukunft blicken. Aufmerksamen Leser:innen ist vermutlich nicht entgangen, dass wir mit der AÖ 35 die Druckerei gewechselt haben. Nachdem die AÖ seit Beginn bei der Druckerei Malek (später Druckwerk Krems) gedruckt wurde, freuen wir uns, in Zukunft mit Kny & Partner zusammenzuarbeiten. Der Wechsel bringt nicht nur eine finanzielle Ersparnis mit sich, der Druck erfolgt nun auch klimazertifiziert (siehe letzte Seite). Außerdem wird die AÖ nun direkt für den Versand eingeschweißt und adressiert, was den Aufwand immens verringert. Wir wünschen Ihnen schöne, erholsame und -falls Sie diese, angeregt durch den Leitartikel, auf der Piste verbringen -unfallfreie Feiertage!

The aim of this article is to propose an interpretation of the Gesta abbatum Sithiensium, a text written by the monk of Saint-Bertin Folcuin between 961 and 962, by placing it within the context of the institutional development of the monastery. After presenting its social and political context, particularly the effects of the reform implemented by Count Arnulf I of Flanders in 944, we will identify the author's twofold project: on the one hand, the legal value of the text, evidenced by the collection of diplomatic sources in the form of a cartulary; on the other, the construction of a narrative about the monastery's past and present from a Benedictine perspective. Taken together, these two elements show that the writing of the Gesta was linked to a moment of institutional redefinition at the abbey of Saint-Bertin, which sought both to delineate its landed patrimony and to strengthen the cohesion of the monastic community through the creation of a shared memory of its development.

Статията анализира две съоръжения от Венеция, които са включени в мое изследване, целящо да очертае съвременния образ на сакралното пространство. Тъй като тази архитектурна линия е свързана с използване на древни архитектурни модели и общуване с природата, считам, че тя е съвременен контекст, в който може да се впишат тракийските култови сгради. Въпреки, че двете представени пространства не са типични архитектурни произведения, те предразполагат към размисъл върху същността на сакралното и „пътя“, изминат в развитието на храма от природата до архитектурния шедьовър на Паладио. Показват и хоризонти на взаимодействие между изкуствата и сакралната архитектура и провокират размисъл за близостта между въздействието на доброто изкуство и сакралното преживяване.

This paper presents the small number of fragments of painted
plaster with imitation of alabaster found for the most part at the
north (C) and central (B) temples of the Roman temple precinct
at the Nesactium site. The surviving décor has been attributed to
central and lower zone wall decoration. The surviving fragments
indicate late period painted imitation of alabaster, i.e., from
a period when the motif had already fallen out of fashion in
Roman period painting. The proposed dating puts this work
in the period from Nero’s reign—when the use of marble and
its imitation saw renewed popularity—to the mid-2nd c. CE

This paper presents the small number of fragments of painted
plaster with imitation of alabaster found for the most part at the
north (C) and central (B) temples of the Roman temple precinct
at the Nesactium site. The surviving décor has been attributed to
central and lower zone wall decoration. The surviving fragments
indicate late period painted imitation of alabaster, i.e., from
a period when the motif had already fallen out of fashion in
Roman period painting. The proposed dating puts this work
in the period from Nero’s reign—when the use of marble and
its imitation saw renewed popularity—to the mid-2nd c. CE.

Artykuł stanowi opracowanie materiałów z osady w Tworkach Skrodzkich nad Jeziorem Rajgrodzkim, funkcjonującej w okresie wpływów rzymskich oraz w późnym średniowieczu. Podstawę analizy stanowi niemal 10 000 fragmentów ceramiki pozyskanych w trakcie badań wykopaliskowych prowadzonych w latach 1982–1988.

The 'accepted narrative' of AD878 begins with the 'attack' on Chippenham, while King Alfred was celebrating Christmas with a small band of his men. The Danes, who were overwintering nearby in Mercia, and knowing the Christian calendar, mounted a surprise attack on Chippenham in order to capture Alfred unawares. Alfred's men did not put up a fight, but they escaped (cowardly) and fled to the Somerset marshes, Alfred abandoning his kingdom to the Danes. This short summary has several 'facts' which are challenged in this paper, especially that (i) Alfred was in Chippenham and (ii) that there was an 'attack'. The accepted narrative. does not explain the lack of resistance to the Chippenham attack nor how the Danish army, which in the previous year had failed to win a battle at either Wareham or Exeter, could take over the whole kingdom of Wessex within a few weeks. In this paper, evidence is presented which builds a different narrative, namely that the traitorous activities of two collaborators, Wulfhere ealdorman of Wiltshire and Ceolwulf of Mercia presented the Danes with an undefended Chippenham as the first step towards their planned takeover of the whole kingdom of Wessex.

The paper aims to provide an insight into the state of research related
to the question of the emergence in the eastern Adriatic of a new population group identified as Croats in the written sources of the ninth and tenth centuries. The overview is focused on selected scholarly works spanning from the late nineteenth through to the early twenty-first centuries, which have all adopted the migrationist discourse as their interpretative framework. Having become predominant in Croatian historiography, this framework continues to be influential today. This is understandable, given that the main written sources used by scholars for historical reconstruction—the De administrando imperio (hence DAI), the History of the Bishops of Salona and Split, and The Deeds of the Kings of the Slavs1—all feature a migration narrative when relating what may be termed as the Croat origin story.
The works considered here have been selected for being authored by
Croatian scholars and for representing diverse attempts at historical reconstruction and interpretation of the available source material. Additionally, it must be stressed that the present overview draws heavily from and directly relies on previous surveys by Lončar, Švab, Katičić, Margetić, Džino, and Budak, which present various interpretative models and scholarly theories on this topic.

The article scrutinizes the information about Byzantium in the History of the Bishops of Salona and Split by Thomas the Archdeacon (13th century). The main aim is not to inquire into the historical veracity of the information, but rather to examine the type of information available and the manner in which the facts are fitted into the narrative, the intention being to determine what interests Thomas most in connection with Byzantium as well as to provide insights into the narrative contexts in which these data are embedded. The latter analysis aims at creating a
basis for determining the image of Byzantium Thomas constructs, and whether there was any specific purpose behind it. It is possible to draw a careful conclusion that the image of Byzantium Thomas created, however fragmentary it might be, was purposefully and consistently constructed. Byzantium is not accorded much place in Thomas's historical narrative, but it is nevertheless given an important role as part of the narrative strategy with which Thomas additionally illustrates his ideas and worldview. Indeed, he uses the Byzantine rule in Dalmatia to present a
desirable way of governing, with more orderly conditions, which should be aspired to, but also to provide a testimony for the historical individuality of Dalmatia and the Dalmatian communes, for even when the Croat rulers – whose successors were the kings of Hungary who conquered Croatia but acquired the Dalmatian towns by agreement and through consent – came into possession of Dalmatia, that happened with the permission and under the overlordship of Byzantium since, starting with Držislav who was the first to bear the title of king of Dalmatia and Croatia, the royal insignia were sent to Croat kings by Byzantine emperors. Byzantium, embodied in its emperors, is thus in Thomas’s historical narrative not merely an occasional and secondary narrative branch but almost a paradigmatic basis on which the historian develops and presents his own ideas about the function of a
ruler and the special political position of Dalmatia.

Bodzia is one of the most fascinating archaeological discoveries of the post-war period in Poland. It is one of the few cemeteries in Poland from the time of the origins of the Polish state. The unique character of this discovery is mainly due to the fact that a small, elite population was buried there. The burials there included people whose origins were connected with the Slavic, Nomadic-Khazarian and Scandinavian milieus. For the first time the evidence from this area is given prominence. This book is designed mainly for readers outside Poland. The reader is offered a
collection of chapters, combining analyses and syntheses of the source material, and a discussion of its etno-cultural and political significance. The authors formulate new hypotheses and ideas, which put the discoveries in a broader European context.

Статья посвящена исследованию особенностей рецепции византийской культуры на Руси, значению Таврики и Херсона как контактной зоны в процессе аккультурации. Освещается поливариантность механизмов культурного взаимодействия в условиях гетерогенности и самой византийской, и древнерусской культуры. Культурная интеракция Византии и Руси может быть охарактеризована как диалог двух сторон. Отмечены особенности усвоения византийского наследия на Руси, а также сакрализация византийской материальной и духовной культуры, что объясняет отношение к «корсунским» артефактам как к части идеологического дискурса. Вместе с тем русская культура изначально осмысляется как самостоятельная. На примере сюжета о совещании с епископами по вопросу реформы права, внедрения церковного суда прослеживается отношение князя Владимира Святославича к византийскому наследию. Анализируется репрезентация образа князя-крестителя на его монетах. Указаны не получившие развития на Руси элементы византийской традиции. Творческая интерпретация наследия византийской культуры продолжалась на протяжении всей истории русско-византийских отношений.

This report provides a digital archaeological analysis of hill fort networks in Southwestern Britain during the 5th-6th centuries CE, employing Complexity Theory. It explores how advanced computational methods, particularly Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and network analysis, can illuminate the complex dynamics of post-Roman fortified settlements. By examining emergent properties, self-organisation, and nonlinear relationships within these networks, the study challenges traditional monocausal interpretations, revealing the intricate interplay of social, economic, and political factors that shaped early medieval British landscapes. Key findings highlight the strategic reoccupation of hillforts as elite power centres, their role in controlling routeways and resources, and the emergence of regional polities through a network of interdependencies, rather than simple top-down control.

Present article concentrates on the acquisition of Russian relative pronouns. Said pronouns are late to appear if compared to other deictic words. Children start using them at the age of about 3 years. The most widely used are constructions, in which the relative part is connected to the noun or adjective or to the demonstrative pronoun. Children seldom make errors, but there are several differences from the adult language.

" ББК Э37-210.912я9 К 532 Науковий редактор: д-р біблійного богослов'я о. Юрій Щурко. Рецензенти: член-кор. НАНУ, проф., д-р істор. наук Любов Дубровіна, д-р філол. наук Анна Пічхадзе, проф. габ., д-р істор. наук Сергеюс Темчінас Рекомендовано до друку Вченою радою Гуманітарного факультету Українського католицького університету (протокол № 5 від 5.09.2017).
The monograph is the first critical edition of the Old Slavonic Book of Joshua, the sixth book of the Old Testament, the biblical story that follows Pentateuch. This biblical book narrates about the conquest of the Promised Land and the division of the land among the twelve tribes of Israel. It also describes vital leadership role of Joshua at the time of settlement. The fist complete Old Slavonic translation of the Book of Joshua was made in Bulgaria at the early 10th century. Some fragments of this translation were used in the books of the Paleia (interpretation of the biblical texts) and in the Old Rus'ian chronographs. The Book of Joshua was also widely used by the Old Rus'ian chroniclers, especially, in battle narratives. This edition offers a comparative analysis of numerous manuscripts, including 17 oldest texts preserved in the biblical collections of the XIV–XVI centuries.

Recent investigations in the middle Oder region have uncovered numerous assemblages of vessels from the older phases of the Early Medieval period. This pottery is characterized by a specific set of formal, stylistic and technological traits. Finds were dated by the thermoluminescence and radiocarbon dating methods and by the dendrochronological method in singular cases. The oldest pottery assemblages were dated to the 6th c. Numerous petrographic analyses helpedto determine the technology used to produce the vessels

One of the key points when determining the origin and dating of any work is to locate and analyze the main reference sources used by the author in the writing process. Despite being a slightly tedious work, the exhaustive search of these writing models (especially if the text is anonymous or its authorship is unknown) is the most reliable method to address issues of this kind. Therefore, the aim of the present work will be to expose the works and authors that have led us to postulate as Hispanic the collection called Homiliae Toletanae (CPL 1997), whose most complete version (preserved in the codex London, British Library, Add. 30853) could be the product of an author active at the end of the 7th or beginning of the 8th century.

The archaeological excavations carried out from 2006 until 2008 in Piazza XX Settembre in Comacchio allow us to comprehend relative phases of the medieval Episcopal complex. Investigated contexts can be dated from the 6 th c. to the Modern Age. The archaeological data concerning the first Bishop's church refer to the mid-eight century, proven by excavated cemetery area and porch. Original chapel was certainly placed under the modern Cathedral. Excavations brought to light several architectural elements and fragments of floor material, parts of the 8 th and 9 th century church, some reused in the later building. Different architectural elements of the first church (columns, capitals, marble slabs) were part of more ancient buildings, not necessarily of local origin. During the Carolingian period this early church was supplied with an altar screen. Between the end of the 10 th and the beginning of the 12 th century in front of the church new rectangular building was erected. By its shape, size and quality of used material, we can suggest that it corresponds to a part of the Romanesque Bishop's palace. Its walls were built with numerous spolia -parts of the earlier church. This demonstrates that the church itself has been completely reconstructed. The research of the architectural fragments and the data concerning some groups of architectural elements allows us to comprehend the quality of the early medieval church furniture. It is also possible to examine activities of re-use on a Romanesque construction site.

The article discusses the evidence relating to the death of knyaz Igor in
the Drevlian land in 945. According to the Russian chronicle “Tale of
Bygone Years”, the Drevlians considered the ruler of Kiev to be a robber
and a thief and constantly compared Igor to a wolf. Relying on this
evidence, V. Y. Petrukhin suggested that the comparison of Igor with a
wolf is rooted in the remnants of the Indo-European legal tradition, in
which an outlaw was likened to a wolf. The researcher only cited parallels
from Scandinavian and Icelandic legal traditions to prove his hypothesis.
The outlaw was indeed called ‘vargr’ (i.e. ‘wolf’) there. However, as M.
Jacobi has shown, the polysemy ‘wolf-criminal’ in Germanic languages is
probably late. Therefore, it cannot be used as decisive evidence for the
existence of a similar phenomenon in the Slavic legal tradition. In order to
demonstrate the existence of the polysemy ‘criminal/outcast-wolf’, the
author of this article refers to §37 of the Hittite laws, in which a woman's
kidnapper and a murderer of her defenders was declared ‘wolf’, i.e. outlaw. This legal use of the word ‘wolf’ can be extrapolated to the Slavic legal tradition, where the expression “to kill somebody like a dog” appears in the legal code “Russkaya Pravda”. Given the interchangeability of the lexemes ‘wolf’ and ‘dog’ in certain Indo-European languages, it is reasonable to conclude that we are dealing with remnants of the Indo-European legal tradition, in which an outlaw was declared a wolf.