Ecological Impact Assessment

The potential ecological impact of ongoing climate change has been much discussed. High mountain ecosystems were identified early on as potentially very sensitive areas. Scenarios of upward species movement and vegetation shift are commonly discussed in the literature. Mountains being characteristically conic in shape, impact scenarios usually assume that a smaller surface area will be available as species move up.

Development of roads can have deleterious effects on natural habitats containing species of conservation concern. Fragmentation of habitat into small, non-contiguous patches may result in dramatic population declinesthus appropriate studies quantifying ecological impacts of roads at landscape scale are essential. The main goal of this study was ecological impact assessment of roads network in Eastern part of Isfahan Province, including Abassabad wildlife refuge and Siahkouh National park, which are among the most important habitats for Asiatic Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) classified as Critically Endangered (CR) on the IUCN Red List. For this purpose, Spatial Road Disturbance Index (SPROADI), as a new landscape index was applied for the ecological impact assessment of the roads. This index uses three sub-indices including traffic intensity, vicinity impact and fragmentation grade to calculate the ecological impacts of road networks. Results obtained through quantifying the l...

Growing concerns about climate change and energy security have fueled a rapid increase in the development of marine renewable energy installations (MREIs). The potential ecological consequences of increased use of these devices emphasizes the need for high quality environmental impact assessment (EIA). We demonstrate that these processes are hampered severely, primarily because ambiguities in the legislation and lack of clear implementation guidance are such that they do not ensure robust assessment of the significance of impacts and cumulative effects. We highlight why the regulatory framework leads to conceptual ambiguities and propose changes which, for the most part, do not require major adjustments to standard practice. We emphasize the importance of determining the degree of confidence in impacts to permit the likelihood as well as magnitude of impacts to be quantified and propose ways in which assessment of population-level impacts could be incorporated into the EIA process. Overall, however, we argue that, instead of trying to ascertain which particular developments are responsible for tipping an already heavily degraded marine environment into an undesirable state, emphasis should be placed on better strategic assessment.

Here we present a spatial planning approach for the implementation of adaptation measures to climate change in conservation planning for ecological networks. We analyse the wetland ecosystems of the Dutch National Ecological Network for locations where the effectiveness of the network might be weakened because of climate change. We first identify potential dispersal bottlenecks where connectivity might be insufficient to facilitate range expansions. We then identify habitat patches that might have a too low carrying capacity for populations to cope with additional population fluctuations caused by weather extremes. Finally, we describe the spatial planning steps that were followed to determine the best locations for adaptation measures. An essential part of our adaptation strategy is to concentrate adaptation measures in a 'climate adaptation zone'. Concentrating adaptation measures is a cost-effective planning strategy, rendering the largest benefit per area unit. Measures are taken where abiotic conditions are optimal and measures to enhance the spatial cohesion of the network are taken close to existing areas, thus creating the highest possible connectivity with the lowest area demands. Another benefit of a climate adaptation zone is that it provides a spatial protection zone where activities that will have a negative impact on ecosystem functioning might be avoided or mitigated. The following adaptation measures are proposed within the climate adaptation zone: (1) link habitat networks to enable species to disperse from present to future suitable climate zones, (2) enlarge the carrying capacity by either enlarging the size of natural areas or by improving habitat quality to shorten population recovery after disturbances, (3) increase the heterogeneity of natural areas, preferably by stimulating natural landscape-forming processes, to avoid large synchronised extinctions after extreme weather events. The presented approach can be generalised to develop climate adaptation zones for other ecosystem types inside or outside Europe, where habitat fragmentation is a limiting factor in biodiversity responses to climate change.

Development of roads can have deleterious effects on natural habitats containing species of conservation concern. Fragmentation of habitat into small, non-contiguous patches may result in dramatic population declinesthus appropriate studies quantifying ecological impacts of roads at landscape scale are essential. The main goal of this study was ecological impact assessment of roads network in Eastern part of Isfahan Province, including Abassabad wildlife refuge and Siahkouh National park, which are among the most important habitats for Asiatic Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) classified as Critically Endangered (CR) on the IUCN Red List. For this purpose, Spatial Road Disturbance Index (SPROADI), as a new landscape index was applied for the ecological impact assessment of the roads. This index uses three sub-indices including traffic intensity, vicinity impact and fragmentation grade to calculate the ecological impacts of road networks. Results obtained through quantifying the l...

The acceleration of infrastructure development presents many challenges for the mitigation of ecological impacts. The type, extent, and cumulative effects of multiple developments must be quantified to enable mitigation. Objectives We quantified anthropogenic development footprints in a globally significant and relatively intact region. We identified the proportion accounted for by linear infrastructure (e.g. roads) including infrastructure that is currently unmapped; investigated the importance of key landscape drivers; and explored potential ramifications of offsite impacts (edge effects). Methods We quantified direct development footprints of linear and 'hub' infrastructure in the Great Western Woodlands (GWW) in southwestern Australia, using digitisation and extrapolation from a stratified random sample of aerial imagery. We used spatial datasets and literature resources to identify predictors of development footprint extent and calculate hypothetical 'edge effect zones'. Results Unmapped linear infrastructure, only detectable through manual digitisation, accounts for the greatest proportion of the direct development footprint. Across the 160,000 km 2 GWW, the estimated development footprint is 690 km 2 , of which 67% consists of linear infrastructure and the remainder is 'hub' infrastructure. An estimated 150,000 km of linear infrastructure exists in the study area, equating to an average of ~1 km per km 2. Beyond the direct footprint, a further 4,000-55,000 km 2 (3-35% of the region) lies within edge effect zones. Conclusions This study highlights the pervasiveness of linear infrastructure and hence the importance of managing its cumulative impacts as a key component of landscape conservation. Our methodology can be applied to other relatively intact landscapes worldwide.

Landscape connectivity is the degree to which the landscape facilitates or impedes movement among resource patches. This movement is crucial for a number of different ecological processes including migration, dispersal, and colonization of locally extinct habitat patches. Hence, landscape connectivity has been of great interest to ecologists for at least two decades. Landscape connectivity is studied at the level of individual habitat patches as well as at the much larger landscape scale; it is modeled and empirically observed. Many different metrics have been developed to study the effect of landscape connectivity on a variety of organisms. Here, we give a brief overview of the different ways landscape connectivity has been defi ned and measured and highlight some important fi ndings about the impact of connectivity on ecological and evolutionary processes, conservation, and natural resource management.

This paper discusses the modelling of two strategies for conservation planning in human-dominated landscapes: the enlargement of existing reserve sites and the allocation of stepping stones between these sites. We developed two spatial allocation models that plan new habitat according to these strategies, considering simple ecological rules of thumb to meet the requirements for population sustainability and the suitability of the land for competing land use. The model ENLARGE enlarges the existing sites. The model MENTOR modifies the spatial arrangement of patches by adding new patches that may act as stepping stones between reserve sites. These two models result in different habitat configurations. Both the allocation of stepping stones and the enlargement of existing sites provide a higher percentage of occupied habitat. These models may help to address the question under which conditions either the allocation of stepping stones or the enlargement of existing sites is preferred as strategy for conservation planning in human-dominated landscapes.

This paper discusses the modelling of two strategies for conservation planning in human-dominated landscapes: the enlargement of existing reserve sites and the allocation of stepping stones between these sites. We developed two spatial allocation models that plan new habitat according to these strategies, considering simple ecological rules of thumb to meet the requirements for population sustainability and the suitability of the land for competing land use. The model ENLARGE enlarges the existing sites. The model MENTOR modifies the spatial arrangement of patches by adding new patches that may act as stepping stones between reserve sites. These two models result in different habitat configurations. Both the allocation of stepping stones and the enlargement of existing sites provide a higher percentage of occupied habitat. These models may help to address the question under which conditions either the allocation of stepping stones or the enlargement of existing sites is preferred as strategy for conservation planning in human-dominated landscapes.

The acceleration of infrastructure development presents many challenges for the mitigation of ecological impacts. The type, extent, and cumulative effects of multiple developments must be quantified to enable mitigation. Objectives We quantified anthropogenic development footprints in a globally significant and relatively intact region. We identified the proportion accounted for by linear infrastructure (e.g. roads) including infrastructure that is currently unmapped; investigated the importance of key landscape drivers; and explored potential ramifications of offsite impacts (edge effects). Methods We quantified direct development footprints of linear and 'hub' infrastructure in the Great Western Woodlands (GWW) in southwestern Australia, using digitisation and extrapolation from a stratified random sample of aerial imagery. We used spatial datasets and literature resources to identify predictors of development footprint extent and calculate hypothetical 'edge effect zones'. Results Unmapped linear infrastructure, only detectable through manual digitisation, accounts for the greatest proportion of the direct development footprint. Across the 160,000 km 2 GWW, the estimated development footprint is 690 km 2 , of which 67% consists of linear infrastructure and the remainder is 'hub' infrastructure. An estimated 150,000 km of linear infrastructure exists in the study area, equating to an average of ~1 km per km 2. Beyond the direct footprint, a further 4,000-55,000 km 2 (3-35% of the region) lies within edge effect zones. Conclusions This study highlights the pervasiveness of linear infrastructure and hence the importance of managing its cumulative impacts as a key component of landscape conservation. Our methodology can be applied to other relatively intact landscapes worldwide.

Habitat connectivity plays a paramount role in the biodiversity of fragmented landscapes. Commonly, connectivity is measured using simple structural metrics, e.g. Euclidean distances between habitat patches. Recently, functional measures such as cost-distance metrics have been proposed. Cost-distance metrics account for behavioural aspects of investigated organisms. They weight the habitats of the investigated landscape according to specific cost values, and model the optimal dispersal corridor according to these values. This study investigated i) if structural or functional connectivity measures explain biodiversity in a focal habitat better and ii) if the appropriateness of the measure differs between patch and landscape scale. We mapped the landscapes within a 500 m radius around 30 fragmented traditional orchards (focal patch). Connectivity measures were based on either Euclidean distances (structural) or cost-distances (functional) to other suitable habitat patches. Birds were used as biodiversity indicators. For analysis, we calculated species richness and total abundance of all species with a preference for woody habitats. In addition, abundances of four wood-preferring bird species were also examined individually. Linear models were created using stepwise forward selection. The relative performance of structural and functional connectivity measures was scale dependent. Structural metrics explained more variance at the patch scale whereas functional metrics explained more variance at the landscape scale. We conclude that simple structural metrics can be used to investigate local or small-scale effects on bird diversity but that investigations of landscape scale connectivity should consider behavioural aspects by using more complex functional metrics. The comparison between group and single species showed that not all individual species behave similarly to group results. Whilst the use of organism groups must be treated with caution, it is certainly worthy of future study.

Ecological connectivity should be an important consideration in environmental assessment (EA). How often and how thoroughly the analysis of ecological connectivity is integrated in the EA process is, however, unknown. We surveyed EA actors and stakeholders regarding their perceptions of, and experiences with, connectivity analysis in the context of EA. 134 practitioners, regulators, consultants, researchers, and interest groups from all inhabited continents participated. Over 72% of respondents stated that ecological connectivity should always be considered; however, it is often considered too late in the EA process, at a scale of analysis often unsuitable for capturing landscape-scale effects, and relying on overly simplistic metrics or qualitative approaches. This disparity between the availability of a range of quantitative tools and the poor consideration of connectivity in EA raises major concerns about current practice and the feasibility of connectivity analysis in project-based EA. Connectivity consideration will need to be required explicitly and supported by best-practice guidance to address the conditions that should trigger a connectivity analysis, the required types of approaches, and the kind of information required to inform decision-making.

In human dominated landscapes, ecosystems are under increasing pressures caused by urbanization and infrastructure development. In Alpine valleys remnant natural areas are increasingly affected by habitat fragmentation and loss. In these contexts, there is a growing risk of local extinction for wildlife populations; hence assessing the consequences on biodiversity of proposed land use changes is extremely important. The article presents a methodology to assess the impacts of land use changes on target species at a local scale. The approach relies on the application of ecological profiles of target species for habitat potential (HP) assessment, using high resolution GIS-data within a multiple level framework. The HP, in this framework, is based on a species-specific assessment of the suitability of a site, as well of surrounding areas. This assessment is performed through spatial rules, structured as sets of queries on landscape objects. We show that by considering spatial dependencies in habitat assessment it is possible to perform better quantification of impacts of local-level land use changes on habitats.

Mineral extraction from the seabed has experienced a recent surge of interest from both the mining industry and marine scientists. While improved methods of geological investigation have enabled the mapping of new seafloor mineral reserves, the ecological impacts of mining in both the deep sea and the shallow seabed are poorly known. This paper presents a synthesis of the empirical evidence from experimental seabed mining and parallel industries to infer the effects of seabed mineral extraction on marine ecosystems, focusing on polymetallic nodules and ferromanganese concretions. We use a problem-structuring framework to evaluate causal relationships between pressures caused by nodule extraction and the associated changes in marine ecosystems. To ensure that the rationale behind impact assessments is clear, we propose that future impact assessments use pressure-specific expert elicitation. We further discuss integrating ecosystem services in the impact assessments and the implications of current methods for environmental risk assessments.

Forest and vegetation of particular ecosystem is generally influenced by external factors especially from development activities. Nepal has been endowed with an immense variety of forest resources with its unique biodiversity. The current study is conducted in the temperate forest of central Nepal to compare the state of vegetation recorded during 1995 with the present condition. To identify floristic composition, species distribution and diversity, same location and same size of quadrates were selected in natural forest and planted or regenerated area as in previous study. Measurement and analytical tools for forest and vegetation reveled a total of 19 species and 341 individuals in 0.14 ha regenerated area and 18 species, 17 genera and 260 individuals in 0.16 ha, natural forest areas. However, in 1995, total 31 individuals of 20 woody species, 18 genera and 15 families were recorded within the sampling plots of 0.16 ha of natural forest. Moreover, Alnus nepalensis is found dominating regenerated area and Caryopteris odorata in natural forests whereas in 1995, Litsea chartacea and Maesa chisia were recorded dominant. The Shannon's diversity H' = 2.908, E = 0.970 and Var H' = −0.00 and Simpsons D = 0.027 recorded in 1995 is found to be with higher values when compared with the analysis of present study. Furthermore, in comparison to 1995 study, this study showed lower basal area and timber volume with declining species diversity. Although, the natural forest is found with higher species composition compared to rehabilitated forest, species of herbs and shrubs were found extensively growing.

Context Many connectivity metrics have been used to measure the connectivity of a landscape and to evaluate the effects of land-use changes and potential mitigation measures. However, there are still gaps in our understanding of how to accurately quantify landscape connectivity. Objectives A number of metrics only measure between-patch connectivity, i.e. the connectivity between different habitat patches, which can produce misleading results. This paper demonstrates that the inclusion of within-patch connectivity is important for accurate results. Methods The behavior of two metrics is compared: the Connectance Index (CONNECT), which measures only between-patch connectivity, and the effective mesh size (m eff), which includes both within-patch and between-patch connectivity. The connectivity values of both metrics were calculated on a set of simulated landscapes. Twenty cities were then added to these landscapes to calculate the resulting changes in connectivity. Results We found that when using CONNECT counter-intuitive results occurred due to not including within-patch connectivity, such as scenarios where connectivity increased with increasing habitat loss and fragmentation. These counter-intuitive results were resolved when using m eff. For example, landscapes with low habitat amount may be particularly sensitive to urban development, but this is not reflected by CONNECT. Conclusions Applying misleading results from metrics like CONNECT can have detrimental effects on natural ecosystems, because reductions in withinpatch connectivity by human activities are neglected. Therefore, this paper provides evidence for the crucial need to consider the balance between within-patch connectivity and between-patch connectivity when calculating the connectivity of landscapes. Keywords Between-patch connectivity Á CONNECT Á Connectance Á Connectedness Á Effective mesh size Á Fragmentation per se Á Habitat connectivity Á Inter-patch connectivity Á Intra-patch connectivity Á Landscape metrics Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (

Ecological connectivity should be an important consideration in environmental assessment (EA). How often and how thoroughly the analysis of ecological connectivity is integrated in the EA process is, however, unknown. We surveyed EA actors and stakeholders regarding their perceptions of, and experiences with, connectivity analysis in the context of EA. 134 practitioners, regulators, consultants, researchers, and interest groups from all inhabited continents participated. Over 72% of respondents stated that ecological connectivity should always be considered; however, it is often considered too late in the EA process, at a scale of analysis often unsuitable for capturing landscape-scale effects, and relying on overly simplistic metrics or qualitative approaches. This disparity between the availability of a range of quantitative tools and the poor consideration of connectivity in EA raises major concerns about current practice and the feasibility of connectivity analysis in project-based EA. Connectivity consideration will need to be required explicitly and supported by best-practice guidance to address the conditions that should trigger a connectivity analysis, the required types of approaches, and the kind of information required to inform decision-making.

Ecological connectivity should be an important consideration in environmental assessment (EA). How often and how thoroughly the analysis of ecological connectivity is integrated in the EA process is, however, unknown. We surveyed EA actors and stakeholders regarding their perceptions of, and experiences with, connectivity analysis in the context of EA. 134 practitioners, regulators, consultants, researchers, and interest groups from all inhabited continents participated. Over 72% of respondents stated that ecological connectivity should always be considered; however, it is often considered too late in the EA process, at a scale of analysis often unsuitable for capturing landscape-scale effects, and relying on overly simplistic metrics or qualitative approaches. This disparity between the availability of a range of quantitative tools and the poor consideration of connectivity in EA raises major concerns about current practice and the feasibility of connectivity analysis in project-based EA. Connectivity consideration will need to be required explicitly and supported by best-practice guidance to address the conditions that should trigger a connectivity analysis, the required types of approaches, and the kind of information required to inform decision-making.

Growing concerns about climate change and energy security have fueled a rapid increase in the development of marine renewable energy installations (MREIs). The potential ecological consequences of increased use of these devices emphasizes the need for high quality environmental impact assessment (EIA). We demonstrate that these processes are hampered severely, primarily because ambiguities in the legislation and lack of clear implementation guidance are such that they do not ensure robust assessment of the significance of impacts and cumulative effects. We highlight why the regulatory framework leads to conceptual ambiguities and propose changes which, for the most part, do not require major adjustments to standard practice. We emphasize the importance of determining the degree of confidence in impacts to permit the likelihood as well as magnitude of impacts to be quantified and propose ways in which assessment of population-level impacts could be incorporated into the EIA process. Overall, however, we argue that, instead of trying to ascertain which particular developments are responsible for tipping an already heavily degraded marine environment into an undesirable state, emphasis should be placed on better strategic assessment.

Growing concerns about climate change and energy security have fueled a rapid increase in the development of marine renewable energy installations (MREIs). The potential ecological consequences of increased use of these devices emphasizes the need for high quality environmental impact assessment (EIA). We demonstrate that these processes are hampered severely, primarily because ambiguities in the legislation and lack of clear implementation guidance are such that they do not ensure robust assessment of the significance of impacts and cumulative effects. We highlight why the regulatory framework leads to conceptual ambiguities and propose changes which, for the most part, do not require major adjustments to standard practice. We emphasize the importance of determining the degree of confidence in impacts to permit the likelihood as well as magnitude of impacts to be quantified and propose ways in which assessment of population-level impacts could be incorporated into the EIA process. Overall, however, we argue that, instead of trying to ascertain which particular developments are responsible for tipping an already heavily degraded marine environment into an undesirable state, emphasis should be placed on better strategic assessment.

The paper critically examines the equivoques, conceptual traps and weaknesses of the recent 'ecological network' paradigm, invocated as a cool environmental planning tool to the aim to mitigate the effect of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. We highlight as: (i) there is a semantic ambiguity deriving from the languages used in this interdisciplinary arena; (ii) these plans will be considered a true tool for biodiversity conservation when they will adopt a logic of problem solving and the standards requested in project cycle management (clear objectives, decision-making approach, appropriate monitoring and indicators, adaptive management); (iii) planners should follow a costs/benefits analysis comparing different scenarios and verifying that the 'connectivity' option effectively work better; (iv) each ecological network should be considered as a context-specific strategy where connectivity is only a simplified and schematic key of interpretation; (v) planners should carried out a local selection of fragmentation-sensitive targets that may not correspond with the species of conservation concern included in global or national red lists.

Forest and vegetation of particular ecosystem is generally influenced by external factors especially from development activities. Nepal has been endowed with an immense variety of forest resources with its unique biodiversity. The current study is conducted in the temperate forest of central Nepal to compare the state of vegetation recorded during 1995 with the present condition. To identify floristic composition, species distribution and diversity, same location and same size of quadrates were selected in natural forest and planted or regenerated area as in previous study. Measurement and analytical tools for forest and vegetation reveled a total of 19 species and 341 individuals in 0.14 ha regenerated area and 18 species, 17 genera and 260 individuals in 0.16 ha, natural forest areas. However, in 1995, total 31 individuals of 20 woody species, 18 genera and 15 families were recorded within the sampling plots of 0.16 ha of natural forest. Moreover, Alnus nepalensis is found dominating regenerated area and Caryopteris odorata in natural forests whereas in 1995, Litsea chartacea and Maesa chisia were recorded dominant. The Shannon's diversity H' = 2.908, E = 0.970 and Var H' = −0.00 and Simpsons D = 0.027 recorded in 1995 is found to be with higher values when compared with the analysis of present study. Furthermore, in comparison to 1995 study, this study showed lower basal area and timber volume with declining species diversity. Although, the natural forest is found with higher species composition compared to rehabilitated forest, species of herbs and shrubs were found extensively growing.

In this work, we analyzed the temporal trends of nine selected key terms used in the habitat fragmentation arena, quantifying their number (and frequency) of recurrence on Web of Science from 1960 to 2020. The most used key (focal) terms (“stepping stones”, “habitat corridors”, “landscape connectivity”), showed a progressive increase from 1981 to 2020, with “landscape connectivity” showing the highest increase in frequency in the last decade (2011–2020). Among the key secondary terms (recurring < 5%), although “corridors”, “continuity”, and “contiguity” showed a slight growth over the decades, “connectivity conservation” showed the most significant increase. This last landscape-related term recently replaced other local-scale concepts (as “stepping stones” and “corridors”) as a consequence of a change of perspective. Conversely, “ecological network planning”, used in landscape planning and less in conservation biology, showed a comparable fewer recurrence. This gap in recurrences...

1. Climate change has been inducing range shifts for many species as they follow their suitable climate space and further shifts are projected. Whether species will be able to colonize regions where climate conditions become suitable, so-called 'new climate space', depends on species traits and habitat fragmentation. 2. By combining bioclimate envelope models with dispersal models, we identified areas where the spatial cohesion of the ecosystem pattern is expected to be insufficient to allow colonization of new climate space. 3. For each of three ecosystem types, three species were selected that showed a shift in suitable climate space and differed in habitat fragmentation sensitivity. 4. For the 2020 and 2050 time slices, the amount of climatically suitable habitat in northwest Europe diminished for all studied species. Additionally, significant portions of new suitable habitat could not be colonized because of isolation. Together, this will result in a decline in the amount of suitable habitat protected in Natura 2000 sites. 5. We develop several adaptation strategies to combat this problem: (i) link isolated habitat that is within a new suitable climate zone to the nearest climate-proof network; (ii) increase colonizing capacity in the overlap zone, the part of a network that remains suitable in successive time frames; (iii) optimize sustainable networks in climate refugia, the part of a species' range where the climate remains stable. 6. Synthesis and applications. Following the method described in this study, we can identify those sites across Europe where ecosystem patterns are not cohesive enough to accommodate species' responses to climate change. The best locations for climate corridors where improving connectivity is most urgent and potential gain is highest can then be pinpointed.

Habitat connectivity plays a paramount role in the biodiversity of fragmented landscapes. Commonly, connectivity is measured using simple structural metrics, e.g. Euclidean distances between habitat patches. Recently, functional measures such as cost-distance metrics have been proposed. Cost-distance metrics account for behavioural aspects of investigated organisms. They weight the habitats of the investigated landscape according to specific cost values, and model the optimal dispersal corridor according to these values. This study investigated i) if structural or functional connectivity measures explain biodiversity in a focal habitat better and ii) if the appropriateness of the measure differs between patch and landscape scale. We mapped the landscapes within a 500 m radius around 30 fragmented traditional orchards (focal patch). Connectivity measures were based on either Euclidean distances (structural) or cost-distances (functional) to other suitable habitat patches. Birds were used as biodiversity indicators. For analysis, we calculated species richness and total abundance of all species with a preference for woody habitats. In addition, abundances of four wood-preferring bird species were also examined individually. Linear models were created using stepwise forward selection. The relative performance of structural and functional connectivity measures was scale dependent. Structural metrics explained more variance at the patch scale whereas functional metrics explained more variance at the landscape scale. We conclude that simple structural metrics can be used to investigate local or small-scale effects on bird diversity but that investigations of landscape scale connectivity should consider behavioural aspects by using more complex functional metrics. The comparison between group and single species showed that not all individual species behave similarly to group results. Whilst the use of organism groups must be treated with caution, it is certainly worthy of future study.

The present paper deals with identification, delineation and ecological assessment of micro-habitats in Gangtok municipal area of Sikkim Himalaya. Long continued urbanization and tourism activities have been responsible for fragmentation and deterioration of the original woodlands of this mountainous area. Ecological surveys have been carried out along quadrats and transect to evaluate each of the habitat types in terms of species diversity and species richness. Results show that the Marglef's Index, has received highest value (4.03) for the woodlands of Ranipol locality, located at the lower part of the study area, where more than 19 plant species have been enumerated. The lowest (1.89) value of the index has been obtained in case of Lower M.G. road woodland habitat located as the middle slope of the spur over which the Gangtok urban area extends. Closely similar results have been obtained from computation of Menhinick's Index, value of which ranges between 0.02 and 0.09. Highest species dominance (Simpson's index value = 0.90) and species diversity (Shannon's index value = 0.83) have been found in case of Tadong woodland area while the lowest value of 0.47 for both the indices has been obtained for M.G. road. In Gangtok Municipal area the most dominant species is Dhupi (Cryptomeria japonica) particularly abundant in the upper part of the area namely in Burtok and Chandmari. In the middle part, namely in Deorali and Lower M.G. Marg the dominant species is Chilouni (Schima wallichii) and in the lower part i.e. in Ranipol and Tadong the dominant species is Utis (Alnus nepalensis). This study suggests that the distribution of species and species richness of different micro-habitat are largely regulated by altitude, climatic condition and topographic factors.

Landscape connectivity is the degree to which the landscape facilitates or impedes movement among resource patches. This movement is crucial for a number of different ecological processes including migration, dispersal, and colonization of locally extinct habitat patches. Hence, landscape connectivity has been of great interest to ecologists for at least two decades. Landscape connectivity is studied at the level of individual habitat patches as well as at the much larger landscape scale; it is modeled and empirically observed. Many different metrics have been developed to study the effect of landscape connectivity on a variety of organisms. Here, we give a brief overview of the different ways landscape connectivity has been defi ned and measured and highlight some important fi ndings about the impact of connectivity on ecological and evolutionary processes, conservation, and natural resource management.

This Chapter critically examines procedures and methods that are applied in SEA, identifying strengths and weaknesses of analytical tools, what is missing and what we need to do better or differently. SEA has been increasingly understood by SEA academics and practitioners as a process rather than solely a technique (Bina, 2007). As such, it involves stakeholders with interests and power. Therefore, after an initial section on the background and state of the art of methods and procedures in SEA, the Chapter focuses on three main themes: baseline, political and pragmatic contexts. Through these themes the Chapter discusses how adaptive and robust SEA is in analyzing the impacts and issues that matter.

1 Climate change has been inducing range shifts for many species as they follow their suitable climate space and further shifts are projected. Whether species will be able to colonize regions where climate conditions become suitable, so-called ‘new climate space’, depends on species traits and habitat fragmentation. 2 By combining bioclimate envelope models with dispersal models, we identified areas where the spatial cohesion of the ecosystem pattern is expected to be insufficient to allow colonization of new climate space. 3 For each of three ecosystem types, three species were selected that showed a shift in suitable climate space and differed in habitat fragmentation sensitivity. 4 For the 2020 and 2050 time slices, the amount of climatically suitable habitat in northwest Europe diminished for all studied species. Additionally, significant portions of new suitable habitat could not be colonized because of isolation. Together, this will result in a decline in the amount of suitabl...

In this work, we analyzed the temporal trends of nine selected key terms used in the habitat fragmentation arena, quantifying their number (and frequency) of recurrence on Web of Science from 1960 to 2020. The most used key (focal) terms ("stepping stones", "habitat corridors", "landscape connectivity"), showed a progressive increase from 1981 to 2020, with "landscape connectivity" showing the highest increase in frequency in the last decade (2011-2020). Among the key secondary terms (recurring < 5%), although "corridors", "continuity", and "contiguity" showed a slight growth over the decades, "connectivity conservation" showed the most significant increase. This last landscape-related term recently replaced other local-scale concepts (as "stepping stones" and "corridors") as a consequence of a change of perspective. Conversely, "ecological network planning", used in landscape planning and less in conservation biology, showed a comparable fewer recurrence. This gap in recurrences could be due to a bias in our research approach, as Web of Science is a search engine that does not intercept grey literature (as plans and reports) drawn up by Public Agencies which rarely appears in scientific journals.

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is the process of identifying potential environmental effects of proposed development and the required mitigation measures. It is one of the most widely used planning tools today, but its ability to promote biodiversity conservation is largely unexplored. We studied the ecological component of the Israeli EIA system by reviewing a representative sample of 52 environmental impact statements (EISs) produced since 1995 and their corresponding guidelines issued by the Ministry of the Environment. Quality of both EISs and guidelines was determined using a simple scoring approach. Lack of quantitative data, meaningful analyses, and ecosystem perspective was apparent throughout. Many EISs failed to perform field surveys and their qualitative nature hampered meaningful impact prediction. Most EISs concentrated on aesthetic mitigation measures and did not assess their feasibility and likely success. Most of these flaws reflect poor standards rather than true scientific limitations. Guideline quality scores were the most important factor determining the quality of EISs; second was the involvement of an ecological consultant in preparing the EIS. We found a decreasing trend of EIS quality scores over time. Improvements in EIA procedures, particularly in ecological guidelines and the incorporation of ecological consultation, are important for upgrading ecological impact assessment so that the potential of EIA to advance biodiversity conservation can be realized.

Landscape connectivity is increasingly promoted as a conservation tool to combat the negative effects of habitat loss, fragmentation, and climate change. Given its importance as a key conservation strategy, connectivity science is a rapidly growing discipline. However, most landscape connectivity models consider connectivity for only a single snapshot in time, despite the widespread recognition that landscapes and ecological processes are dynamic. In this paper, we discuss the emergence of dynamic connectivity and the importance of including dynamism in connectivity models and assessments. We outline dynamic processes for both structural and functional connectivity at multiple spatiotemporal scales and provide examples of modeling approaches at each of these scales. We highlight the unique challenges that accompany the adoption of dynamic connectivity for conservation management and planning in the context of traditional conservation prioritization approaches. With the increased ava...

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is the process of identifying potential environmental effects of proposed development and the required mitigation measures. It is one of the most widely used planning tools today, but its ability to promote biodiversity conservation is largely unexplored. We studied the ecological component of the Israeli EIA system by reviewing a representative sample of 52 environmental impact statements (EISs) produced since 1995 and their corresponding guidelines issued by the Ministry of the Environment. Quality of both EISs and guidelines was determined using a simple scoring approach. Lack of quantitative data, meaningful analyses, and ecosystem perspective was apparent throughout. Many EISs failed to perform field surveys and their qualitative nature hampered meaningful impact prediction. Most EISs concentrated on aesthetic mitigation measures and did not assess their feasibility and likely success. Most of these flaws reflect poor standards rather than true scientific limitations. Guideline quality scores were the most important factor determining the quality of EISs; second was the involvement of an ecological consultant in preparing the EIS. We found a decreasing trend of EIS quality scores over time. Improvements in EIA procedures, particularly in ecological guidelines and the incorporation of ecological consultation, are important for upgrading ecological impact assessment so that the potential of EIA to advance biodiversity conservation can be realized.

Ecology is "the scientific study of the interrelations between living organisms and their environment, including both the physical and biotic factors" 1. Over the past few decades ecology has gained in stature, to the extent that biodiversity is recognised and protected under EU law 2 and policy. Indeed, the EU, and by extension the UK, has committed to halting biodiversity loss and ecosystem service degradation by 2020 3. The EU's EIA Directive 4 is intended to ensure that projects "likely to have significant effects on the environment" are subject to an assessment of those environmental impacts prior to development consent being granted. The EIA Directive is transposed into national law as the EIA Regulations 5 , which have recently been consolidated and modified 6 .

Ecology is "the scientific study of the interrelations between living organisms and their environment, including both the physical and biotic factors" 1. Over the past few decades ecology has gained in stature, to the extent that biodiversity is recognised and protected under EU law 2 and policy. Indeed, the EU, and by extension the UK, has committed to halting biodiversity loss and ecosystem service degradation by 2020 3. The EU's EIA Directive 4 is intended to ensure that projects "likely to have significant effects on the environment" are subject to an assessment of those environmental impacts prior to development consent being granted. The EIA Directive is transposed into national law as the EIA Regulations 5 , which have recently been consolidated and modified 6 .

In order to build competence for sustainability analysis and assessment of urban systems, it is seen as essential to build on models representing urban form, landuse and transportation, urban metabolism, as well as ecological processes. This type of analysis of interacting sub-system requires an advanced model integration platform, yet open for learning and for further development. Moreover, since the ambition is to increase urban experience with ecosystem management in the wide sense, the platform need to be open and easily available, with high visualisation capacity. Two potential future scenarios were developed, resulting from alternative policies. The scenarios differed and the dense urban development of Scenario Compact could be visualised, destroying much of the Greenstructure of Stockholm, while Scenario Urban Nature steered the development more to outer suburbs and some sprawl. For demonstration of the need for further development of biodiversity assessment models, a network model tied to a prioritised ecological profile was applied and altered by the scenarios. It could be shown that the Greenstructure did not support this profile very well. Thus, there is a need for dynamic models for negotiations, finding alternative solutions and interacting with other models. The LEAM Stockholm case study is Urban ecosystems and sustainable urban development 2 planned to be further developed, to interact with more advanced transport and land use models, as well as analysing energy systems and urban water issues. This will enable integrated sustainability analysis and assessment of complex urban systems, with the goal to build more sustainable urban systems and to increase urban experiences in ecosystem management.

Ecological network (EN) planning bases conservation actions on a strong theoretical skeleton offered by disciplines such as population and landscape ecology, insular biogeography, community ecology and population genetics. Nevertheless, a lack of precise definitions and of a body of practical information regarding implementation has hindered many EN projects whose effectiveness for species conservation appears to be dubious. For example, current policy responses to human-induced habitat fragmentation are often based on simplified spatial assumptions ('putting a pattern on a map') that lack a sound understanding of ecosystem functionality. In this opinion article, I would like to stimulate discussion on the problematic aspects of EN discipline. The 'road map' of this article includes a close examination of (1) the EN approach (site-based or target-oriented?); (2) the multidisciplinary debate; (3) how to select target species; (4) the ENs as networks of territorial objects (what about functional connectivity or structural contiguity?); (5) the role of Natura 2000 network; and (6) the weakness of the EN approach as a persuasive tool or an alibi.

This paper presents a review of the presentations and synthesis of the discussion during a Symposium on 'Transformation of rural-urban cultural landscapes in Europe: Integrating approaches from ecological, socio-economic and planning perspectives' held at the European IALE conference 2009 in Salzburg, Austria. The symposium addressed an extended and much debated subject of the landscape dynamics in Europe. The papers presented during the symposium showcased a broad spectrum of cutting edge research questions and challenges faced by the cultural landscapes of Europe. During six sessions, 18 presentations (besides 20 posters) were made by 36 scientists (including co-authors) from 14 countries, representing 25 institutions of Europe. A glance at the presentations revealed that the state-of-the-art focuses on driving forces and selected aspects of transformation processes, methods of its analysis and planning support as dimensions of research in this field. However, inter-and transdisciplinary research and integrative approaches to the development of rural-urban cultural landscapes are needed. The extended discussion session at the latter part of the symposium highlighted some critical and unaddressed research questions which remained a pending agenda for future research.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an important tool to help decision-makers balance the environmental impacts of a proposed built development with its potential economic benefits. Used in most countries across the globe, EIA commonly includes an ecological component (Ecological Impact Assessment, or EcIA). However, despite considerable changes in relevant legislation, policy and guidance, there has been no recent review of UK EcIA chapter content, with the latest review having been published in 2000. This study attempts to determine the procedural effectiveness of EcIA chapters over time by comparing a new review of 112 English EcIA chapters from 2000 onwards with earlier reviews. This was achieved through the novel use of inferential statistics, an approach previously lacking in the EIA and EcIA review literature. The limitations and advantages of the use of quantitative methods are discussed. In general, there has been an improvement in the information content of EcIA chapters over time, for example in the percentage of EcIA chapters stating the size of the development and estimating the likely effectiveness of proposed mitigation measures. However, the earlier reviews highlighted such severe information deficiencies that the progress seen in the post-2000 EcIA chapter review still leaves considerable scope for improvement. Changes in the EU's EIA Directive in force since May 2014 (and to be transposed into Member State legislation by May 2017) have the potential to encourage the use of inferential statistics in EIA and EcIA review: the requirement for Member States to provide central access to EIA information should enable representative samples to be analysed.

Climate change has been inducing range shifts for many species as they follow their suitable climate space and further shifts are projected. Whether species will be able to colonize regions where climate conditions become suitable, so-called 'new climate space', depends on species traits and habitat fragmentation. 2. By combining bioclimate envelope models with dispersal models, we identified areas where the spatial cohesion of the ecosystem pattern is expected to be insufficient to allow colonization of new climate space. 3. For each of three ecosystem types, three species were selected that showed a shift in suitable climate space and differed in habitat fragmentation sensitivity. 4. For the 2020 and 2050 time slices, the amount of climatically suitable habitat in northwest Europe diminished for all studied species. Additionally, significant portions of new suitable habitat could not be colonized because of isolation. Together, this will result in a decline in the amount of suitable habitat protected in Natura 2000 sites. 5. We develop several adaptation strategies to combat this problem: (i) link isolated habitat that is within a new suitable climate zone to the nearest climate-proof network; (ii) increase colonizing capacity in the overlap zone, the part of a network that remains suitable in successive time frames; (iii) optimize sustainable networks in climate refugia, the part of a species' range where the climate remains stable. 6. Synthesis and applications . Following the method described in this study, we can identify those sites across Europe where ecosystem patterns are not cohesive enough to accommodate species' responses to climate change. The best locations for climate corridors where improving connectivity is most urgent and potential gain is highest can then be pinpointed.

Forest and vegetation of particular ecosystem is generally influenced by external factors especially from development activities. Nepal has been endowed with an immense variety of forest resources with its unique biodiversity. The current study is conducted in the temperate forest of central Nepal to compare the state of vegetation recorded during 1995 with the present condition. To identify floristic composition, species distribution and diversity, same location and same size of quadrates were selected in natural forest and planted or regenerated area as in previous study. Measurement and analytical tools for forest and vegetation reveled a total of 19 species and 341 individuals in 0.14 ha regenerated area and 18 species, 17 genera and 260 individuals in 0.16 ha, natural forest areas. However, in 1995, total 31 individuals of 20 woody species, 18 genera and 15 families were recorded within the sampling plots of 0.16 ha of natural forest. Moreover, Alnus ne-palensis is found dominating regenerated area and Caryopteris odorata in natural forests whereas in 1995, Litsea chartacea and Maesa chisia were recorded dominant. The Shannon's diversity H' = 2.908, E = 0.970 and Var H' = −0.00 and Simpsons D = 0.027 recorded in 1995 is found to be with higher values when compared with the analysis of present study. Furthermore, in comparison to 1995 study, this study showed lower basal area and timber volume with declining species diversity. Although, the natural forest is found with higher species composition compared to rehabilitated forest, species of herbs and shrubs were found extensively growing.