Framing effect

Decision-making literature has demonstrated that individuals' preferences are strongly affected by the way in which choices are presented. This cognitive bias, termed the framing effect, is influenced by the importance of the possible outcomes that a decision can have. However, the direction of this influence remains poorly understood. The aim of this paper was to examine the role of the importance of a decision in framing susceptibility and to explore a potential mechanism underlying this influence. Our first study revealed that participants display a framing effect when their decision implies a high importance outcome, but resist framing manipulation when their decision implies a low importance outcome. Our second study confirmed that an increase in the importance of a decision is associated with increasing framing susceptibility. Moreover, a moderated mediation analysis revealed that the more a decision was important, the more the gain and loss frames aroused opposite emotions, and this accounted for the increase in framing susceptibility. The results of these two studies confirmed that an increase in the importance of a decision is associated with increasing framing susceptibility and suggest that this influence on framing susceptibility is underpinned by emotion. Implications and direction for future studies are discussed.

In this paper I propose that the development of descriptive theories of choice in economics has been profoundly influenced by an arbitrary and seemly innocuous decision as to how to present risky choices to experimental subjects. This decision to represent lotteries as prospects has lead to a preoccupation with the question of whether preferences conform to what is known as the "independence axiom." Had the profession chosen to represent lotteries in the action-by-state matrices favored by Savage, the independence axiom would have appeared uncontroversial but we would have questioned whether preferences obeyed arguably more fundamental tenets of rationality like transitivity. That different ways of representing lotteries lead to different conclusions regarding which axioms preferences do and don't obey suggests that the choices people make aren't necessarily reflecting properties of their preferences at all. Instead the choices reveal properties of the decision rule individuals use to try to satisfy their preferences-a rule that involves judgments regarding the similarity or dissimilarity of prizes and their associated payoffs across alternatives. The paper discusses how such judgments explain observed behaviors given both prospect and matrix representations of lottery choices as well as explaining anomalies in other choice domains.

Prospect theory suggests that people are risk-averse when facing gains, but risk-prone when facing losses, a pattern known as the framing effect. Although framing effects have been widely demonstrated, few studies have investigated framing effects under conditions of need. Risk-sensitivity theory predicts that decision makers should prefer high-risk options in situations of high need, when lower risk options are unlikely to meet those needs. In two experiments, we examined (1) whether framing effects occurred in behavioural tasks involving risky decision making from description and decision making from experience, (2) whether participants' risky decision making conformed to the predictions of risk-sensitivity theory, and (3) whether decision framing interacted with conditions of need to influence decision making under risk. The results suggest that under all circumstances, risky decision making conformed to the predictions of risk-sensitivity theory. Framing effects were at least partially demonstrable under all experimental conditions. Finally, negative frames interacted with situations of high need to produce particularly elevated levels of risky choice. Together, the results suggest that risk-sensitivity theory can augment prospect theory to explain choice under conditions of need.

Is presenting a fiscal bonus as an income increase (a gain) the same as presenting it as a tax rebate (a loss reduction)? This paper aims to answer this question with two studies. Study 1 is a survey carried out in Italy to explore citizens' perceptions of a fiscal reform introduced in 2005. It shows both effects imputable to the methods used to describe the bonus and differences between respondents belonging to different occupational groups. But it does not allow disentangling these factors. Study 2 aims to investigate whether and how (1) the frame used to describe a fiscal bonus and (2) taxpayers' occupational status, influence their evaluation of this tax reduction and the uses they intend to make of it. To this end, 252 participants belonging to different occupational groups were submitted to two between-subject framing conditions (the bonus being described as a reduced loss or as a gain). They were then asked to evaluate the bonus' importance for their personal wealth and to state how they intended to use it. Results demonstrate that the frame, rather than the occupational status of the respondent, influences taxpayers' responses to the bonus. Respondents attached a higher importance to the bonus and were keener to save it when it was described as a loss reduction, compared to it being presented as a gain. These results are interpreted with reference to Prospect Theory, producing new insights into the processes through which framing can affect fiscal policy evaluations. The study is also relevant from a pragmatic perspective, as it shows that the way fiscal policy is communicated can be decisive for the achievement of economic and political goals.

We compare the impact of round and non-round numbers used in a communication message on consumers' evaluations and judgments towards the associated target entity. We find that the use of non-round numbers, in contrast to round numbers, in a message frame results in increased attention to numerical values, which further leads to a comparison of the associated measures with ideal reference points. This leads to an increased framing effect in the non-round numbers condition compared to the round numbers condition. Interestingly, this also negatively affects consumers' overall evaluations of the target entity. We demonstrate that such a decreased positivity in attitudes when using non-round numbers is more pronounced in negatively expressed frames. We explain this using an 'attention shift-comparison' process. Additionally, using multiple methodologies, we provide elaborated support for the attention-association based reasoning for framing effects in general and thus add to the literature on processes underlying framing effects. This extends the original valence-shift based account originally proposed by Levin and Gaeth (1988) and provides an avenue for future research on attention-association based framing effects.

Decision making is a critical issue for humans operating unmanned vehicles. However, it is well admitted that many cognitive biases affect human judgments, leading to suboptimal or irrational decisions. The framing effect is a typical cognitive bias causing people to react differently depending on the context, the probability of the outcomes and how the problem is presented (loss vs. gain). There is a need to better understand the effects of these biases in operational contexts to optimize human-robot interactions. We therefore conducted an experiment involving a framing paradigm in a search and rescue mission (earthquake) and in a Mars rock sampling mission. We manipulated the framing (positive vs. negative) and the probability of the outcomes. Our findings revealed that the way the problem was presented (positively or negatively framed) and the emotional commitment (saving lives vs. collecting the good rock) statistically affected the choices made by the human operators.

This paper investigates the effects of framing in intertemporal choice by elementary school children. Sutter, Yilmaz, and Oberauer (2015) recently demonstrated that intertemporal choice in children is malleable with respect to simple defaults. Using a similar approach, we replicated their study. We also found that children are more willing to select the immediate option in (standard) control frames than in alternative ones that appear to promote delay of gratification. This finding is consistent with previous experiments on children as well as adults and may have implications for cultivating the ability to delay gratification in individuals.

This paper develops an integrated framework of risk management and strategic competitive advantage that incorporates behavioural and economic notions of risk. The resulting model argues for the importance of risk-taking to sustainable competitive advantage and ultimately to firm performance. The model integrates framing effects of attainment discrepancy, transaction costs from implicit contracts theory and capital costs from finance theory. The proposed model suggests that continuous risk-taking by firms may help sustain competitive advantage and thus lower firm risk. This, in turn, effectively increases market returns to shareholders by ensuring earnings growth while simultaneously reducing the risk premium discount attached to a firm's future income stream.

A discount may be defined by the location in which, and frame by which, it is communicated. Discount framing, particularly the differences between cents-off and percentage-off discounts, has been widely studied. Discount location (e.g., proximate to or distal from regular price info) has received considerably less attention. We employ the proximity-compatibility principle and tenets of human memory to demonstrate that discount framing (cents-off, percentage-off, and revised price) and discount location (proximal, distal) interact to differentially affect both the immediate value and the persistence of consumers' price estimates. The implications of these results for retailers and manufacturers are highlighted in the discussion.

The uses of Nudge Theory as devised by Thaler and Sunstein (2008) have so far been limited to the field of Behavioural Economics, and the implementation of policy change aligned to Government and the Law. The present study aims at addressing concerns of generality by clearly defining what is meant by a Nudge, what the “Hard Outcomes” are, and how a Nudge condition faired against a No-Nudge condition (Kosters and Van der Heijden, 2015). Using the formula set out by Schwarz and Bohner (2001) a deficit of information was used, with more information being presented in the later Nudge section than in the initial factual information presentation stage. The Framing Effect espoused by Kahneman and Tversky (1981) was utilised in the study with Participants being presented with Positive or Negative Nudges, which included both Affective and Cognitive information (Ryffel and Wirth, 2016). Although a significant statistic was not found when the scores taken before and after the presentation of the Nudge, and the type of Nudge being presented, were looked at individually there was a significant finding when the interaction effect between the two variables were looked at together. The results from the present study, suggest that Attitudes on the Invention of the Internet can be altered by presenting Participants with a Positive, or Negative, Nudge.

This article is devoted to explaining why decision makers choose salient equilibria or focal points in pure coordination games -games in which players have identical preferences over the set of possible outcomes. Focal points, even when they arise as framing effects based on the labelling of options, are intuitively obvious choices, and experimental evidence shows that decision makers often coordinate successfully by choosing them. In response to arguments that focusing is not rationally justified, a psychological explanation and a conditional justification is offered in terms of a form of reasoning called the Stackelberg heuristic that has been used to explain the selection of payoff-dominant (Pareto-optimal) equilibria in common-interest games. Pure coordination games, if appropriately modelled, are shown to be reducible to common-interest games with payoffdominant equilibria, and it is argued that focusing can therefore be explained by the Stackelberg heuristic.

We present experimental evidence suggesting that human subjects dislike complexity in choice with uncertainty. Our results suggest that the probability of choosing a given alternative decreases with the relative complexity of that alternative. Complexity increases the noise in the choice process and the chances that the (otherwise) inferior alternative will be selected. Our results contradict the predictions of (discounted) expected utility theory and intuitively appealing axioms like 'stochastic dominance' and 'convexity'. These 'complexity effects' may lead to inefficient portfolio selection. The perceived complexity of a given lottery may depend on editing procedures and be subjected to framing effects.

Many individuals find it difficult to make decisions about long term saving e.g. towards retirement. Financial regulators are concerned that providers of financial services can 'cherry pick' past performance information and present this selectively in their promotional materials. However, although prior research shows that past investment performance is generally not useful to retail investors in predicting future returns, these consumers continue to place emphasis on this information in their investment decisions. Because graphical information can be displayed selectively in a self-serving manner, it is important to test for any effect of prior performance presentation format on investor judgements. In this study, we use actual past performance charts in a controlled experiment to investigate whether (i) the format in which information is provided, and (ii) the timescale of the information provided, affects the investment fund choice of ordinary individuals. We find evidence that presenting past information in terms of fund values or percent yields significantly affects investment fund preference and perceptions of risk and return, but that the timescale of past performance information has no such impact. We discuss our results in the light of prior behavioural finance research and suggest policy implications for regulators. JEL Classification: C93, D91, G11 PsycINFO Classification: 3920

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The goal of this paper is the introduction of a cognitive approach to governance of the firm. There are a lot of relationships that tie the cognitive science to management and are founded on the role of the indiv idual in the process of business management. Frequently, managerial decisions are taken using regular way of happening that are not fully rat ional but that are the result of cognitive d istortions or emotional factors (positive or negative) which may push manager to make systematic errors. Starting fro m the cognitive distortion derived fro m the behavioral finance this paper describes some emotional factors, derived fro m the study of psychology literature, that can influence an ind ividual during its decision making process. In this sense, we have identified the most co mmon bias that can shove individuals, and therefo re the manager, to take decisions influenced by cognitive distortions or emotional factors. At the end, after the introduction of a role of cognitive distortions in governance of the firm, we introduced a cognitive approach, with the objective of increasing the degree of knowledge of the effectiveness of its actions.

Using a simple one-shot bribery game, we find evidence of a negative externality effect and a framing effect. When the losses suffered by third parties due to a bribe being offered and accepted are high and the game is presented as a petty corruption scenario instead of in abstract terms bribes are less likely to be offered. Higher negative externalities are also associated with less bribe acceptance. However, framing has no effect on bribe acceptance, suggesting that the issue of artificiality first raised by may be of particular importance in bribery experiments. Abstract frame Corruption frame Abstract frame Corruption frame Abstract frame Corruption frame

In mixed price bundling, the consumer has the choice of buying the individual products separately, as part of a bundle with a discounted price, or not purchasing them at all. Framing effects refer to how the price of the bundle is presented to the consumer. Past studies have focused on perceptual measures and aggregate level results, and have only looked at a subset of different types of price framing in any one study. In this paper we use discrete choice data to investigate whether price framing affects choice in mixed price bundles. We find that the joint, integrated frame results in the highest proportion of respondents choosing the bundle and the fewest choosing "none." When the prices of items in a bundle are itemized, some consumers are more likely to compare prices separately to their reference prices to evaluate the attractiveness of the deal, but this actually reduces the probability of purchasing the bundle. However, the majority of consumers do not use reference prices and instead follow a simple economic choice model.

Suppose an observer views a distant object through a window in the far wall of a room or corridor--a visual scene consituting a vista. If the observer moves toward the window, then the distant object will shrink in apparent size and appear farther away. These effects are paradoxical, because the distant object appears smaller as its visual angle increases. The vista paradox occurs under many other real-world conditions, such as viewing a distant object while moving out of the mouth of a valley, or driving across a topographic crest. In the present study, framing effects and the equidistance tendency are considered as possible factors. However, an explanation based on the dynamic relationship between the visual angle of the framing portion of a vista and the visual angle of a distant object appears more promising.

Decades of research have established the ubiquity and importance of choice biases, such as the framing effect, yet why these seemingly irrational behaviors occur remains unknown. A prominent dual-system account maintains that alternate framings bias choices because of the unchecked influence of quick, affective processes, and findings that time pressure increases the framing effect have provided compelling support. Here, we present a novel alternative account of magnified framing biases under time pressure that emphasizes shifts in early visual attention and strategic adaptations in the decision-making process. In a preregistered direct replication ( N = 40 adult undergraduates), we found that time constraints produced strong shifts in visual attention toward reward-predictive cues that, when combined with truncated information search, amplified the framing effect. Our results suggest that an attention-guided, strategic information-sampling process may be sufficient to explain prior...

The theoretical framework that underpins this research study is based on the Prospect Theory formulated by Kahneman and Tversky, and Thaler’s Mental Accounting Theory. The research aims to evaluate the consumers’ behavior when different patterns of discount are offered (in percentage and absolute value and for larger and smaller discounts). Two experiments were conducted to explore these patterns of behavior and the results that were obtained supported the view that the framing effect was a common occurrence. The patterns of choice of individuals in a sample were found to be different due to changes in the ways discounts were offered. This can be explained by the various ways of presenting discount rates that had an impact on the influence of purchase intentions, recommendations and quality perception.

The article reports two studies applying time-discounting principles to career-related issues. The first study on 40 participants examined the influence of time delay on decisions between options for paying a student union fee or receiving a student scholarship. The predicted positive-negative asymmetry was obtained, with greater time discounting for positive than negative outcomes. The second study compared 13 expert career counselors with 22 similar-age novices in terms of their degree of discounting for their own job preferences and for those of an average graduate. No differences emerged between the novices and experts in relation to their own choices, but experts presented a more realistic assessment of the average graduate decisions than did the novices. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of time perspective in career choice, framing effects, the implicit time constructs in occupational information, and the difficulty of applying career expertise to one's own job choices.

As the fourth estate, the news media serve a normatively significant role in contemporary society. They are the conduits through which individuals learn of issues outside their immediate life space. In addition, they introduce information and viewpoints that foster disagreement, discussion, and democracy. Not surprisingly, then, the news media are central influences on individuals' attitudes, cognitions, and behaviors. Such influences occur across a broad swath of issues, impact a host of demographic and social groups, and span countries and cultures around the globe. Over the past half-century, political communication and public opinion researchers have focused considerably on some related but conceptually distinct theories that have gained intellectual purchase: agenda-setting, priming, and framing. These theories have deeply shaped collective understanding of how individuals perceive and respond to their political and social worlds. Understanding these theories requires keeping in mind how they are situated in the wider arc of communication research and how assumptions about the nature of media influences have fluctuated over the years. In the early 20th century, the media-then comprising newspapers, books, film, and radio-were viewed as omnipotent. By the mid-20th century scholars were pronouncing that the media were not really omnipotent but had very limited effects. In the 1970s another pendulum swing occurred, and the field returned to the notion of an all-powerful media. This intellectual turn derived in large part from the rise of a mass society, in which individuals were living atomistically and, as scholars assumed, actively turning to the media to craft an image of social reality. Today scholars generally believe strong media effects can emerge for some individuals some of the time. The original formulation and refinements of the concepts discussed in this article-agenda-setting, priming, and framing-reflect the field's gravitation toward this view of contingent effects, particularly in light of an increasingly complex political and media landscape.

Blinder. My colleagues never failed to provide both useful criticism and encouragement during the process, and, in particular, I would like to thank Danielle Jung, Devesh Tiwari, Saul Cunow, Matt Kearney, Cetta Mainwaring and the entire Comparative Workshop. I am also grateful to the many conference panel discussants and attendees who commented on my work, including the Midwest Political Science Association, the Politics of Race, Immigration and Ethnicity Consortium, the Qualitative Methods Consortium, and the Migration Working Group at UCSD.

According to prospect theory (A. Tversky & D. Kahneman, 1981), messages advocating a low-risk (i.e., easy, low-cost) behavior are most effective if they stress the benefits of adherence (gain framed), whereas messages advocating a risky behavior are most effective if they stress the costs of nonadherence (loss framed). Although condom use is viewed as a low-risk behavior, it may entail risky interpersonal negotiations. Study 1 (N ϭ 167) compared ratings of condom use messages advocating relational behaviors (e.g., discussing condoms) or health behaviors (e.g., carrying condoms). As predicted, loss-framed relational messages and gain-framed health messages received higher evaluations. Study 2 (N ϭ 225) offers a replication and evidence of issue involvement and gender as moderators. Results are discussed with reference to the design of condom use messages.

Message frames have been found to influence relevant issue attitudes by influencing the weight of issue considerations emphasized in the message. As such message frames often originate from advocacy interest groups, this study investigates differences in the framing effects of advocacy groups, depending on whether the message fits readers' expectations for the communicators' issue position (expected advocacy) or not (unexpected advocacy). Across two issue topics, findings suggest that unexpected advocacy significantly influenced readers' perceived belief importance, which in turn influenced issue attitudes, whereas the same mediated path of framing effects was not supported in the case of expected advocacy. When politicians, issue advocates, public relations professionals, and indeed journalists create messages for public consumption regarding issues of public concern, they often package information around a central organizing idea in order to facilitate audience issue understanding and interpretation. These structuring templates for message construction are referred to as frames (Gamson & Modigliani, 1987, 1989). For example, messages regarding the policy proposal to expand areas for offshore drilling may be framed in terms of its impact on energy supply, the economy, the maritime environment, or other considerations. Framing effects occur when considerations highlighted in a framed message are utilized by readers when they form their opinions on the issue (Entman, 1993; Scheufele, 1999). Though articles can build frames around multiple considerations, framing researchers often create stimulus messages that feature a single frame in order to isolate its effects.

Framing plays an important role in public policy. Interest groups strategically highlight some aspects of a policy proposal while downplaying others in order to steer the policy debate in a favorable direction. Despite the importance of framing, we still know relatively little about the framing strategies of interest groups due to methodological difficulties that have prevented scholars from systematically studying interest group framing across a large number of interest groups and multiple policy debates. This article therefore provides an overview of three novel research methods that allow researchers to systematically measure interest group frames. More specifically, this article introduces a word-based quantitative text analysis technique, a manual, computer-assisted content analysis approach and face-to-face interviews designed to systematically identify interest group frames. The results generated by all three techniques are compared on the basis of a case study of interest group framing in an environmental policy debate in the European Union.

The purpose of this research is to investigate attribute framing effects in an information complex environment where consumers view the frame via a realistic product package and experience a taste test. The framed attribute (content of chocolate expressed as "20% fat" or "80% fat-free")used in our experiment is differentially meaningful to male and female respondents. Framing effects were limited to female consumers for whom the framed attribute was particularly salient.

This research demonstrates that people's goals associated with regulatory focus moderate the effect of message framing on persuasion. The results of 6 experiments show that appeals presented in gain frames are more persuasive when the message is promotion focused, whereas loss-framed appeals are more persuasive when the message is prevention focused. These regulatory focus effects suggesting heightened vigilance against negative outcomes and heightened eagerness toward positive outcomes are replicated when perceived risk is manipulated. Enhanced processing fluency leading to more favorable evaluations in conditions of compatibility appears to underlie these effects. The findings underscore the regulatory fit principle that accounts for the persuasiveness of message framing effects and highlight how processing fluency may contribute to the "feeling right" experience when the strategy of goal pursuit matches one's goal. Angela Y. Lee and Jennifer L. Aaker contributed equally and are listed in reverse alphabetical order. We thank Aimee Drolet for her help in data collection; Galen Bodenhausen, Wendi Gardner, Ginger Pennington, and Brian Sternthal for their insightful suggestions on this research; and Tory Higgins and Alex Rothman for their very helpful comments on earlier versions of this article.

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

Mixed findings have emerged in message framing studies, even when such studies employ the same general type of framing, such as goal framing. This article attempts to show that by extending the heuristic-systematic model-based explanation of message framing effects to incorporate conditions that may prompt both systematic and heuristic processing, this theory may accommodate some of the aberrant findings. The research reported shows that by varying a message issue's risky implications and its personal relevance, 2 factors that potentially influence the type of processing people employ, systematic, heuristic, or concurrently both types of processing were evoked and influenced people's judgments, causing alternative patterns of message framing effects to occur. The results offer insight into how each of these types of processing can affect message framing outcomes, and they imply that certain seemingly aberrant findings in the literature can be reconciled with this extended theory. THE HSM-BASED EXPLANATION OF MESSAGE FRAMING EFFECTS Goal framing studies that involve persuasive communications generally examine how people's judgments of a single message-advocated position, act, or object may differ as a

Accentuate the positive or accentuate the negative? The literature has been mixed as to how the alternative framing of information in positive or negative terms affects judgments and decisions. We argue that this is because different studies have employed different operational definitions of framing and thus have tapped different underlying processes. We develop a typology to distinguish between three different kinds of valence framing effects. First we discuss the standard risky choice framing effect introduced by Tversky and Kahneman (1981) to illustrate how valence affects willingness to take a risk. Then we discuss attribute framing, which affects the evaluation of object or event characteristics, and goal framing, which affects the persuasiveness of a communication. We describe the distinctions, provide a number of examples of each type, and discuss likely theoretical mechanisms underlying each type of framing effect. Our typology helps explain and resolve apparent confusions in the literature, ties together studies with common underlying mechanisms, and serves as a guide to future research and theory development. We conclude that a broader perspective, focused on the cognitive

Standardization is a cornerstone of any serious psychological test. It is fundamental to a test's objectivity and reduces subjectivity to a minimum. In this article we demonstrate that standardization alone is a necessary but insufficient condition for a test's objectivity. By varying the description of test results within a normal curve, we obtained systematic violations of objectivity. In particular, we introduce the concept of a ''double framing effect" and show its prevalence in diagnostic decisions of both laypeople and experts.

Research and theory are reviewed which consider two decision biases: escalation of commitment and decision framing. Some authors (Bazerman, 1986; Whyte, 1986) have suggested that escalation of commitment may be explained by the decision framing used in the research paradigms. A study was conducted which simultaneously manipulated both responsibility for a prior decision and decision frame. Results show a main effect on resource allocation for responsibility and no effect for decision frame. A follow-up study found that amount of information provided systematically affected the framing bias, and that when responsibility was added to a large amount of contextual information, the framing effect became nonsignificant. These results suggest a need to further examine the boundary conditions of framing.

We design experiments to jointly elicit risk and time preferences for the adult Danish population. The experimental procedures build on laboratory experiments that have been evaluated using traditional subject pools. The field experiments utilize field sampling designs that we developed, and procedures that were chosen to be relatively transparent in the field with non-standard subject pools. Our overall design was also intended to be a general template for such field experiments in other countries. We examine the characterization of risk over a wider domain for each subject than previous experiments, allowing more precise estimates of risk attitudes. We also examine individual discount rates over six time horizons, as the first stage in a panel experiment in which we revisit subjects to test consistency and stability of responses over time. Risk and time preferences are heterogeneous, varying by observable individual characteristics. On a methodological level, we implement a refinement of existing procedures which elicits much more precise estimates, and also mitigates framing effects.

Under various fields of research, framing is a concept beautifully constructed by the diverse set of theories and notions. Framing is all about how an individual, a group, an organization or the society communicates and perceives a particular issue. Fields such as Media and communication, Health, Politics and law saw the advent of applications of framing. Due to increased burnout among employees and conflicts between leaders and employees, the need and importance of framing have raised in the area of Leadership communication. In any organization, leaders should be aware of the importance of framing for effective communication. This paper reflects the comprehensive review of the 'framing' concept and also the methodological procedures used in empirical studies of framing, leading to a discussion of how framing could be used in Leadership Communication. Researchers and Academicians can use this literature review to develop a model or frame policies to train individuals involved in leadership roles to use framing as a skill.

In order to carry out urban regeneration and redevelopment projects so that physical spaces can be regenerated to keep pace with urbanization factors as well as to offer and maintain better livability conditions for the residents, the urban designers require a whole lot of information. The Placecheck User's Guide developed by the Urban Design Alliance London or UDAL serves as an important and indispensable tool to know about the place and get the 'right answers' to frame effective proposals for the place. This paper seeks to evaluate the Placecheck User's Guide and attempts to emphasize that while Placecheck is a useful tool to help regenerate urban areas and guide urban development, yet there is a scope to make it more elaborate and comprehensive to enhance its utility further to suit a wider range of situations.

Though the long-term value of price discounting is questionable, it remains a common marketing practice. When price discounts are implemented there are different ways in which the same discount can be expressed, or 'framed', and this may affect consumers' reactions. This paper reports the results of a study designed to examine the effect on consumers' choice behaviour of framing the same price discount as a percentage or as a dollar amount, for lowpriced and high-priced items.

We examine the properties of a popular method for eliciting choices and values from experimental subjects, the multiple price list format. The main advantage of this format is that it is relatively transparent to subjects and provides simple incentives for truthful revelation. The main disadvantages are that it only elicits interval responses, and could be susceptible to framing effects. We consider extensions to address and evaluate these concerns. We conclude that although there are framing effects, they can be controlled for with a design that allows for them. We also find that the elicitation of risk attitudes is sensitive to procedures, subject pools, and the format of the multiple price list table, but that the qualitative findings that participants are generally risk averse is robust. The elicitation of discount rates appear less sensitive to details of the experimental design.

is a Ph.D. candidate in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Her research examines how communication technologies shape the ways citizens engage with political messages in a polarized political environment. Sang Jung Kim is a Ph.D. candidate at the School of Journalism & Mass Communication, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Her interest focuses on the interaction between technology and the politics of social identities. Ran Tao is a doctoral student at the School of Journalism & Mass Communication, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Her research focuses on how the interplay between emotion and cognition influences the effects of persuasive messages.

In addition to probabilities of monetary gains and losses, personality traits, socio-economic factors, and specific contexts such as emotions and framing influence financial risk taking. Here, we investigated the effects of joyful, neutral, and sad mood states on participants’ risk-taking behaviour in a simple task with safe and risky options. We also analysed the effect of framing on risk taking. In different trials, a safe option was framed in terms of either financial gains or losses. Moreover, we investigated the effects of emotional contagion and sensation-seeking personality traits on risk taking in this task. We did not observe a significant effect of induced moods on risk taking. Sad mood resulted in a slight non-significant trend of risk aversion compared to a neutral mood. Our results partially replicate previous findings regarding the presence of the framing effect. As a novel finding, we observed that participants with a low emotional contagion score demonstrated increas...

First and foremost, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my committee chair Professor Paul Kowert, for his support, encouragement and guidance during the writing of this dissertation. His inputs and guidance helped me develop the thesis, analyze the results and reach meaningful conclusions. I benefitted immensely from his helpful comments on the various drafts of my work and from the courses on Foreign Policy and International Relations theory that he taught.

Smartphone users visit application marketplaces (or app stores) to search and install applications. However, these app stores are not free from privacy-invasive apps, which collect personal information without sufficient disclosure or people's consent. To nudge people away from privacy-invasive apps, we created a visual representation of the mobile app's privacy rating. Inspired by "Framing Effects," we designed semantically equivalent visuals that are framed in either a positive or negative way. We investigated the effect of the visual privacy rating, framing, and user rating on people's perception of an app (e.g., trustworthiness) through two experiments. In Study 1, participants were able to understand the intended meaning of the visual privacy ratings. In Study 2, we found a strong main effect for visual privacy rating on participants' perception of an app, and framing effects in a low privacy rating app. We discuss implications for designing visual privacy ratings, including the use of positive visual framing to nudge people away from privacy-invasive apps.

The aim of the present study is to analyse factors affecting worries, coping strategies and decisions of young drivers regarding the risk of sleep-related car crashes. Furthermore, the study also analyses whether framing the same information about sleepiness in two different linguistic forms influences: (1) the evaluation of the level of risk associated to a specific level of drowsiness (Attribute Framing problem); (2) the willingness to enact strategies to "prevent" sleepiness before night-time driving (Goal Framing problem); (3) the choice between two different ways, both of equal expected efficacy, of lowering drowsiness (Risky decision-making Framing problem).

A meta-analysis of Asian-disease-like studies is presented to identify the factors which determine risk preference. First the confoundings between probability levels, payoffs, and framing conditions are clarified in a task analysis. Then the role of framing, reflection, probability, type, and size of payoff is evaluated in a meta-analysis. It is shown that bidirectional framing effects exist for gains and for losses. Presenting outcomes as gains tends to induce risk aversion, while presenting outcomes as losses tends to induce risk seeking. Risk preference is also shown to depend on the size of the payoffs, on the probability levels, and on the type of good at stake (money/property vs human lives). In general, higher payoffs lead to increasing risk aversion. Higher probabilities lead to increasing risk aversion for gains and to increasing risk seeking for losses. These findings are confirmed by a subsequent empirical test. Shortcomings of existing formal theories, such as prospect theory, cumulative prospect theory, venture theory, and Markowitz's utility theory, are identified. It is shown that it is not probabilities or payoffs, but the framing condition, which explains most variance. These findings are interpreted as showing that no linear combination of formally relevant predictors is sufficient to capture the essence of the framing phenomenon.