Hebrew Language

The article examines the contribution of the Kaufman collection to the research of the Kingdom of Judah in the late eighth century BCE. It focuses on the 'fiscal bullae', a group of bullae inscribed in a certain format and dated by the regnal years of the reigning king. It suggests that the fiscal bullae system was introduced by King Hezekiah in his early years and operated during most of his reign. As Hezekiah reigned for 29 years, the latest year marked on the bullae (26) falls on the eve of Sennacherib's campaign against Judah (701 BCE). As a result of the campaign, many cities whose names appeared on the bullae were ruined and the system came to an end. This consideration enables the dating of Hezekiah's reign to the years 728/27-699/98 and that of Ahaz, his predecessor, to 743-728/27. Thus, the fiscal bullae supplied the necessary data that enabled us to break the scholarly deadlock concerning Hezekiah's years of reign, and put an end to the chronological debate that has been taking place since the beginning of modern biblical research.

Nowhere is the accurate translation of Scripture more pertinent than Genesis 3:1-19, concerned as it is with the misrepresentation of God’s speech and the resulting consequences for humanity. The passage is laden with implications, not least for our theological and aetiological understanding of the tensions and imbalances in male/female relations. Consequently, English translations face the challenge of maintaining accuracy and meaning while avoiding allowing existing traditions or convictions to colour translation. This paper examines the ESV, NIV and NLT translations, commenting on similarities and, in particular, differences with nontrivial potential to inform the understanding of readers in particular directions. The focus is on passages of speech, particularly as they pertain to the woman, and concludes with a proposal for the translation of God’s words to her in Gen 3:16.

This study examines the pragmatic features present in AI-assisted academic essays written by senior high school students in Tagum City, Davao del Norte. Anchored in Hyland's (2005) stance-engagement model and grounded in discourse pragmatics, the study investigates how linguistic resources shape meaning and communicative intent in AIsupported student writing. Employing a qualitative discourse-analytic design, the study analyzed a purposively selected corpus of 20 AI-assisted essays. The analysis was operationalized through systematic coding and interpretive examination of pragmatic markers, including hedges, boosters, modality markers, discourse markers, and speech acts. Findings indicate that modality markers such as can, should, and must were most frequently used, reflecting students' emphasis on ethical and procedural considerations in AI use. Hedges, including may and might, revealed cautious stance-taking, while boosters occurred minimally, suggesting limited assertiveness in student arguments. Discourse markers particularly demonstrated a reliance on linear cause-and-effect reasoning. Speech act analysis further showed the predominance of assertives and directives, forming an expository-advisory rhetorical structure that explains AI's role and promotes responsible practices. Overall, AI-assisted essays exhibit a balanced yet constrained pragmatic profile characterized by a moderated stance, ethical framing, and limited rhetorical variation. These findings highlight both novice writing tendencies and the linguistic defaults of AI tools. The study underscores the need for explicit instruction in argumentation, stance-taking, cohesive device variation, and ethical AI integration in academic writing.

Viszonylag kevés kutatás irányult ez idáig a régi magyarországi nyomtatványok szövegeiben található bibliai idézetek vizsgálatára. Heltai Gáspár munkáit, noha műveit meghatározta a bibliai textusokkal való szoros kapcsolat, e szempontból még nem elemezték. Pázmány Péter esetében beszélhetünk egyedül kiterjedt kutatásokról, amelyek egyszersmind rávilágítani látszanak, hogy Pázmány idézési módszere általa tudatosan meghatározott elvek mentén működött. 1 Ezzel szoros kapcsolatban arra vonatkozólag is történt utalás, hogy Pázmány a Biblia textusának idézése során elsősorban saját fordításában közölte azt, annak ellenére is, hogy Káldi fordításának az elején elismerően értekezett a munkáról. 2 E kutatások egyik ösztönző ereje Pázmány műveinek készülő és már elkészült kritikai kiadásai. Ugyanakkor a Biblia irodalmi használatának kora-újkori szokásai kapcsán még igen sok ösvény felfedezetlen. 16. századi szerzőink sorából jelen tanulmány kereteiben Heltai Gáspár szövegeit kívánom megvizsgálni. Heltai Gáspár nyomdájában 1551-1565 között több részletben jelent meg a Biblia magyar fordításának majdnem egésze. A Heltai által irányított munka részeként először Mózes könyvei, 3 majd egymást követően Sirák, Jézus fia, 4 a prófétai könyvek, 5 a Salamonnak tulajdonított könyvek 6 készültek el. Ezeket nyolcéves szünet, valamint a fordító csapat részleges megváltozása követte. A sorban az újabb részleges bibliafordítás a Zsoltároké volt, 7 ezt követően jelent meg az Újszövetség fordítása. 8 Heltai utolsó bibliafordítása 1565-ben hagyta el a sajtót, 1

This study reexamines a group of stone seals from Ḥorbat Naḥal Yatir and argues that earlier interpretations identifying some of them as Paleo-Hebrew administrative tools are unconvincing. It proposes instead that one key artifact, Seal No. 2, is best understood as a Roman military bread stamp. In addition, the study offers new interpretations for several other seals from the site, suggesting that they relate to local bread production within the rebel community. Together, these findings provide a revised and more nuanced understanding of the site's final occupation and the interactions between the Jewish rebels and the Roman army.

„Aspekt“ ist im Hebräischen nicht neu und kein Import über das Griechische; was beide Fälle (Porter im Griechischen, die Aspekt-Priorität im Hebräischen) verbindet, ist nicht eine Abstammung, sondern dieselbe methodische Bewegung: ein Aspekt-Schema, das einer Sprache übergestülpt und die Zeit zur Pragmatik herabgestuft wird.
Der Streitpunkt ist nicht die Existenz des Aspekts, sondern seine behauptete Priorität. B. Peters’ Beweis – das Unersetzbarkeits-Argument – verwechselt morphologische Konstanz mit funktionalem Vorrang, immunisiert die Aspekt-These gegen Falsifikation (Leerlauf), setzt die binäre Struktur a priori und muss qotel und die we-Formen herabstufen.

Essai interdisciplinaire sur les racines métaphysiques, historiques et idéologiques d'un dialogue civilisationnel

Cet essai naît d’un double constat : d’une part, l’alliance contemporaine entre Israël et l’Inde – souvent réduite à des enjeux géopolitiques ou économiques – masque une profondeur civilisationnelle rarement explorée ; d’autre part, les études sur le sionisme restent prisonnières d’un cadre eurocentrique, négligeant les connexions anciennes avec l’Asie du Sud, que ce soit sur le plan spirituel, numérique ou linguistique.
L’originalité de cette recherche réside dans son approche transversale : en croisant archéologie, numérologie, linguistique et métaphysique, elle révèle comment des systèmes de pensée apparemment éloignés (Kabbalah et Vedanta, zéro et Ayin, hébreu et sanskrit) partagent des structures communes, suggérant soit des échanges oubliés, soit une généalogie plus large que les récits traditionnels. Enfin, ce travail vise à dépasser les clivages disciplinaires pour offrir une vision holistique des racines du sionisme, tout en éclairant les fondements symboliques de l’alliance Israël-Inde actuelle.

Why was the book of Chronicles written entirely in Hebrew in a multilingual
Persian-period environment in which Aramaic increasingly functioned as the language of
administration and communication? This article argues that conventional explanations are
insufficient, as linguistic choice carries broader ideological significance. Drawing on
sociolinguistic theory and ethno-symbolic approaches to identity formation, it examines
Hebrew in Chronicles as a symbolic cultural resource in Persian-period Yehud. After
reviewing the linguistic realities of the period and debates concerning the status of Hebrew
and Aramaic, this article analyzes the Chronicler’s exclusive use of Hebrew in relation to
ethnicity, collective memory, and communal boundary formation. In contrast to Ezra–
Nehemiah and Daniel, which incorporate Aramaic sections and explicitly reflect multilingual
realities, Chronicles constructs a linguistically unified conceptual world centered on
Jerusalem, temple, genealogy, and “All Israel.” The article proposes that Hebrew functions
as a form of symbolic space through which the Chronicler reconstructs continuity with
Israel’s past and articulates a durable sense of peoplehood within the context of Persian
imperial rule, thus reinforcing continuity between Israel’s textual past and its evolving
Second Temple identity.

Aquest article presenta una anàlisi acadèmica de la inscripció del túnel de Siloam, situada a Jerusalem i tradicionalment interpretada com una commemoració de la construcció hidràulica atribuïda al rei Ezequies. El text exposa una reinterpretació basada en una traducció modular i etimològica que suggereix que la inscripció descriu un esfondrament ocorregut durant les obres del túnel, la mort d'alguns treballadors i el rescat dels supervivents.

O Ritual do Craft publicado pelo Grande Oriente do Brasil em 2026 talvez represente um dos fenômenos ritualísticos mais reveladores da Maçonaria brasileira contemporânea. Embora oficialmente apresentado como baseado na 13ª edição da Emulation Lodge of Improvement for Master Masons, o texto revela tensão permanente entre a tradição oral inglesa clássica e a necessidade brasileira de estabilização pedagógica do working. A partir da comparação entre o ritual distrital inglês utilizado no Brasil, o ritual gobiano de 2009 e a nova versão de 2026, o presente estudo sustenta que a crescente prolixidade textual, a hiper-rubricização, a expansão catequética e a transformação da abertura ritualística em gerenciamento administrativo da sessão não podem ser compreendidas apenas como descaracterização da Emulation, mas como resposta institucional a um problema mais profundo: a tentativa de preservar a identidade do Craft inglês dentro de um ambiente ritualisticamente moldado pela hegemonia cultural do REAA.  O artigo propõe que o Ritual 2026 revela fenômeno característico de tradições ritualísticas cuja sustentação oral deixou de ser suficiente para garantir a continuidade do working. Nesse contexto, o excesso de explicações, notas e regulamentações deixa de representar simples expansão editorial e passa a funcionar como mecanismo compensatório de preservação ritualística.
Palavras-chave: Emulation Lodge of Improvement; Craft inglês; Grande Oriente do Brasil; Ritual 2026; oralidade ritualística; hipertrofia ritualística; escocesização; Nigerian Ritual; ritual administrativo; Tábua de Delinear.

Although publishing during doctoral candidature is increasingly central to academic success, yet research on L2 doctoral students' writing for publication has largely focused on Anglophone contexts or examined challenges primarily at the linguistic level. Less is known about how L2 doctoral students in non-English-dominant settings navigate the combined linguistic, structural and epistemological demands of academic publishing. Addressing this gap, this qualitative case study examines how two L2 doctoral students, one Malaysian ESL student and one Algerian EFL student are socialised into publishing practices at a research-intensive university in Malaysia. Guided by second language socialisation, academic discourse socialisation and communities of practice frameworks, data were collected through semi-structured interviews. Findings reveal a trajectory from struggles to strategies in L2 doctoral publishing socialisation. Students initially faced linguistic difficulties in academic expression, structural challenges in navigating reviewer feedback and publication processes, and epistemological challenges in positioning their research. Over time, they developed strategies through supervisory guidance, sustained writing practices, and distributed support networks.

This study offers a focused exegetical re-reading of Genesis 2:21-22 that situates the creation of the woman within the literary, lexical, and theological framework of ancient Near Eastern temple anthropology. Rather than approaching the passage as a biological or purely etiological account, the article examines how the narrative employs tardēmâ (deep sleep), ṣēlāʿ (side), and the verb bānâ (to build) to construct a theological vision of human identity shaped by divine initiative and sacred space. A canonical analysis of tardēmâ demonstrates its consistent association with moments of decisive divine action in which normal human agency is suspended, thereby framing the creation of the woman as an act belonging exclusively to God's sovereign prerogative.

The present study examines the etymology, historical development, and geographical distribution of the Slavic personal name Borivoje. Employing methods from historical linguistics, Slavic onomastics, etymology, and comparative philology, the paper investigates the Proto-Slavic origins of the name, its morphological structure, semantic composition, historical attestations, and distribution across various Slavic linguistic communities. Particular attention is devoted to the reconstruction of the Proto-Slavic form Borivojь, its relationship to the Czech form Bořivoj, and the South Slavic variants Borivoj and Borivoje. The study analyzes the earliest documented attestations of the name, including Prince Bořivoj I of the ninth century, and traces its historical development among Serbs, Croats, Czechs, and other Slavic peoples. The findings demonstrate that Borivoje belongs to the oldest stratum of Slavic dithematic personal names and represents one of the most prominent examples of martial semantics within Slavic anthroponymy. The analysis further identifies significant methodological limitations in current scholarship, particularly the scarcity of early South Slavic documentary evidence and the absence of comprehensive quantitative studies. The results confirm that Borivoje constitutes an important element of the shared Slavic linguistic and cultural heritage whose continuity can be traced for more than a millennium.

The story of believers being nearly put to death before the appearance of the sign at Christ’s birth is both inspiring and a little confusing. According to the Book of Mormon, the sign comes in the 92nd year, which was actually the sixth year after the prophecy had been made. There is little wonder why even some believers began to doubt. The setting of a final date by which the prophecy must be fulfilled, however, suggests that until that day, there must have been reason for even the nonbelievers to concede that fulfillment was still possible; yet after that deadline it was definitively too late. An understanding of Mesoamerican timekeeping practices and terminology provides one possible explanation.

Squire, Mark R. “Falling Far from the Tree?: God’s Rejection of Cain Outside the Garden of Eden.” S.T.M. Thesis, Concordia Seminary, 2018. 105 pp. This thesis offers a review of the history of interpretation of the account of Gen 4:1–16. Specifically, the focus of this thesis regards the question of why God favored Abel and his sacrifice and not Cain and his sacrifice. The paper provides an original translation of Gen 4:1–16, as well as translation notes. The historical interpretations of the answer to the question of why God favored Abel over Cain are grouped into three broad categories: Cain’s sacrifice, Cain himself, and Yahweh. The evidence offered in this thesis shows that, despite the fact that the text of Gen 4:1–16 itself does not give an answer to the question, nor does it seem interested in the question itself, scholars have debated the reason behind God’s favoring of Abel for over two millennia, arriving at any number of possible interpretations. Using the text of Gen 4:1...

It would be difficult to point to what anyone might call the 'beginning' of my love and enjoyment for Biblical theology. I was blessed to begin attending Saint John Lutheran School in Fraser, MI my second grade year, where I was taught the accounts of Scripture, most importantly the good news of Jesus Christ. There, I was mentored by faithful men and women who had dedicated their lives to Christian education. Pastors John Merrill and Eric Majeski, and later, Pastor Brad Smith, all fanned the flame of my love for the Bible and for theology. This only continued at Lutheran High School North in Macomb, MI. There, I learned how to put theology into practice from men like Steve Garrabrant and Brian Horvath. Without them, I may not have found myself entering the seminary four years later. In addition, it was John Brandt who sharpened my skills with pen and paper. I attribute my writing abilities to his tutelage (and I apologize for any stray use of the word "thing" in this thesis paper). Naturally, it was upon entering higher education that my love for Biblical theology blossomed. At Concordia University River Forest, I began studying the Biblical languages, learning Hebrew and Greek from Rev. Drs. Andrew Steinmann, Michael Eschelbach, and Charles Froehlich. Once I entered Concordia Seminary, my Biblical interests only grew deeper, as I was fortunate to study with many faithful pastors and doctors of theology, including Rev.

This study aims to inquire into the touches of Nishitani Taizo's translation of The Natural History of Selborne by Gilbert White from a quantitative perspective in comparison with those by two predecessors. It has been said that Nishitani began translating it into Japanese in 1936 and continued the work until his death in 1957. Long before his death, however, two literary scholars had already published their authoritative translations of the English book. Despite this

This article advances a three-part argument concerning the translation and theological interpretation of two closely related Hebrew texts: Job 38:7 and Isaiah 54:1. The first argument is lexical: the verb rûaʿ in Job 38:7b — rendered "shouted for joy" in most English translations — belongs to the military register of ancient Hebrew warfare vocabulary as documented in the standard lexicons, designating the assault cry or battle shout deployed at the moment of decisive divine action. The addition of the qualifier "for joy" represents a translators' interpretive gloss with no corresponding Hebrew lexeme in the text, and its consistent presence across English translation traditions has systematically obscured the military register of the sons of God's response to the founding cosmic battle. The second argument is contextual: the exilic literary context of Isaiah 54, situated in the wake of the catastrophic judgment oracles of Isaiah 51–53, renders the standard joy-song interpretation of Isaiah 54:1's imperative rannî contextually and pastorally incoherent. Within the ruins of the chapter's literary context, the three consecutive imperative verbs of verse 1 — rannî, pitschî, and tsahalî — constitute a battle mobilization sequence escalating from a ringing declaration of victory through the bursting open of contained force to the full-charge vocabulary of the war horse in Jeremiah 8:16, requiring interpretation as a preemptive assault cry of declared divine victory rather than an emotional encouragement to happiness. The third argument is cross-cultural and tradition-historical: the pre-battle declaration of divine victory before physical manifestation is cross-culturally attested in every major ancient civilization examined, from Assyrian and Babylonian ritual warfare texts through Mesoamerican death-whistle practice to the Vedic conch-shell tradition, the Japanese kiai, and the Greek personification of the war cry as a deity in her own right. The convergent preservation of the specifically supernatural understanding of this practice — the invocation of divine presence through sound before physical engagement — requires an explanation beyond independent invention, which the Second Temple Jewish transmission account of 1 Enoch 8, corroborated by Nickelsburg, Milik, and Wright, provides with a coherence that neither diffusion theory nor independent invention theory can match. The cumulative force of these three arguments establishes that Isaiah 54:1's opening command is the prophetic appropriation of the same class of sound that the sons of God deployed at the founding of the world — a preemptive assault cry addressed to a desolate exilic community, commanding the declaration of divine victory before its physical manifestation, in explicit recapitulation of the divine council's warfare response to the chaos combat at creation. This reading constitutes a contribution to the growing scholarly literature on the divine council worldview in prophetic literature and on the relationship between creation cosmology and exile-restoration theology in Deutero-Isaiah.

The present research examines Persian-Arabic compound loanwords in the Bengali language. As one of the major branches of the Indo-European languages in South Asia, Bengali has, over the centuries, been profoundly influenced by cultural, commercial, and literary interactions with both Persian and Arabic. The primary aim of this study is to identify the domains of phonological change and identification of semantic domains in which Persian-Arabic compound words are most prominently represented. Adopting a linguistic analytical approach, the study investigates the extent of influence of these compound loanwords on contemporary Bengali and demonstrates their strong presence across administrative, religious, literary, economic, social, political, and informal conversational registers. The research corpus consists of data collected from everyday spoken interactions and interviews with native Bangladeshi speakers. Field observations further reveal that several of these words have undergone noticeable phonological and semantic adaptations. Overall, this study underscores the importance of Persian-Arabic compound loanwords in enriching the Bengali lexicon and highlights their role in shaping the linguistic and cultural identity of the region.

In this essay, I attempt a preliminary definition of Hedva Harechavi’s uniqueness within Hebrew poetry, particularly in the realm of language. I focus on the aspects through which her distinctive style took shape in the 1980s, and I try to explain how my own poetry has been influenced by her work.

This article analyses and contextualizes the revised text of Nah 1:5 found in a recently discovered fragment of the Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8ḤevXIIgr) uncovered during archaeological excavations carried out at the end of 2019 by the Israel Antiquities Authority in the Cave of Horror (Naḥal Ḥever). After introducing the evidence preserved in the new fragment, the first two sections of the paper provide a philological examination of both the Hebrew and the versional witnesses. This lays the groundwork for a comprehensive analysis in the last section of the revised text contained in 8ḤevXIIgr. At first glance, the revised material may be considered as mere stylistic modifications intended to accurately convey the Hebrew base text. However, when examined more closely, the divergent text reveals inner-Greek resonances that trigger subtle interpretative connections with Pentateuchal traditions.

This article examines the relationship between Prov 31:10–31 (the ʾêšet ḥayil acrostic) and Song 6:4–10, arguing that the passage in the Song is a deliberate subversion of the acrostic. The argument hinges on the relationship between Prov 31:28, “Her sons rise up and extoll her; her husband praises her,” and Song 6:9b, “Daughters see her and extoll her; queens and concubines praise her.” Based on a linguistic analysis of these two lines in the broader context of the language of the acrostic and the Song of Songs, this study concludes that Song 6:9b is derivative of Prov 31:28. The article goes on to discuss the significance of the Song’s subversion of the acrostic, contrasting the feminine ideals presented in the two biblical texts and surveying the ways that women and sexual relationships are portrayed in biblical and ancient Egyptian wisdom literature and love poetry.

This article advances two interrelated arguments concerning the avnei esh ("stones of fire") of Ezekiel 28:14-16 and their theological significance for pneumatology and spiritual anthropology. The first argument is lexical and intertextual: the bāreqet among the covering stones of Ezekiel 28:13 -rendered anthrax ("burning coal") in the Septuagint and derived from the root bāraq ("to flash, to lighten") -belongs to the same category of divine-realm fire-substance as the avnei esh of verses 14 and 16. The article further argues that the consonantal texture of ḥôtēm ("seal") in Ezekiel 28:12, noted by Heiser as compatible with a serpentine reading within the passage's Ugaritic background, constitutes an internal lexical signal consistent with the supernatural-being identification and inconsistent with the Adam typology proposed by some interpreters. The expelled cherub belongs to the cherub-seraph class of divine throne guardiansfiery serpentine beings whose iconographic expressions differ between Ezekiel's Mesopotamian and Isaiah's Egyptian cultural backgrounds but whose category is identical -and the Adam identification fails on five independent textual criteria developed in section I. The carbuncle-class fire-stone thread is traceable through the ekdaḥ of Isaiah 54:12 and the overlapping foundation stones of Revelation 21:19-20, producing a coherent intertextual progression in which the fire-substance from which the expelled cherub was permanently removed constitutes the boundary material of structures from which he is eternally excluded. The second argument is theological and anthropological: the expulsion decree of Ezekiel 28:16 -executed through the judicial verbs ḥillaletî ("I desacralized") and vaʾabbedekā miqqerev ("I caused to perish from the midst") -is categorical rather than geographical in force. Where the cherub wore the fire-stones as a removable mikseh ("covering"), the Spirit-baptized believer carries the same substance internally as a participation in the divine nature (koinōnoi theias physeōs, 2 Pet 1:4), constituting a boundary whose exclusionary force the expelled cherub must recognize precisely because he recognizes the substance of his own expulsion zone.

(Handbook of Linguistic Landscapes and Multilingualism - Gorter & Cenoz, Eds., Wiley, 2025)
The analysis of linguistic landscape (LL) in any given territorial unit is embedded in its sociolinguistic realities. It thus needs to be addressed in terms of its language policy and language practices as well as its history and ideologies. Israel has been driven by a strong ideology of establishing a home for the Jews who started arriving in Palestine at the end of the nineteenth century from various countries around the world, mostly in Eastern and Central Europe. Upon arriving in Palestine, Hebrew, a language not used as a vernacular for hundreds of years, was introduced as the main language for all, based on the belief that a common language will result in a cohesive collective identity for the future nation. The decision to introduce Hebrew as the main language of the emerging nation followed harsh debates and discussions among Zionist organizations in congresses that took place in Europe. At that time, Hebrew was mostly used for reading the scriptures and not as a vernacular. Still, it was chosen as "the" language (vis-à-vis Yiddish, which served as a vernacular in Europe), to be used as the one language. This differed greatly from the trilingual language patterns of Jews out of Israel, which typically included (i) a Jewish language such as Yiddish, Ladino, or Judeo-Arabic; (ii) a territorial language of the place where they resided; and (iii) a written version of Hebrew for reading the scriptures and religious education (Or and Shohamy 2017; Spolsky 2014). The drive to revive Hebrew as the sole language of the Zionist movement was influenced by the monolingual model of the European (post-Westphalian) nation-state, but it also served a dual purpose. First, by choosing a language that was not one's native tongue, it avoided granting primacy to any single group within the Jewish population. Second, by not adopting Yiddish, the most widely spoken native language of the Jews, it enabled Yiddish speakers to break with the diasporic past and reimagine their identity as a new (or renewed) people in a new (or renewed) country. Once in Palestine, the early Zionists were successful in convincing the British authorities that ruled the territory since 1917 to declare Hebrew an official language, along with Arabic and English. Arabic was recognized as the language of the Arab-Palestinian society, and English served as the language of bureaucracy. This active campaign to establish Hebrew as the sole language of the Jewish population in Palestine was supported by acts of planning committees, most importantly the Hebrew Language Committee. The Committee was founded in 1890 and operated significantly from 1911 until 1953 when it was replaced by the Academy of the Hebrew Language. The Committee strove to turn Hebrew into a vernacular through a series of corpus planning actions involving the selection of a prestigious model for the language (deliberating between Biblical and Mishnaic Hebrew), the desired pronunciation (especially of the consonants), spelling (mostly of vowel sounds), and the

Sanatorium pod klepsydrą [Sanatorium Under the Sign of the Hourglass] by Bruno Schulz in Hebrew letters with ruby-style interlineal romanization. Intended for readers of Polish-language fiction who wish to acquire the reading skill of the Hebrew script.

This document identifies online witnesses of Moses Mendelssohn's German Torah translation in (a) Hebrew letters and (b) Latin/Gothic German letters, and develops a practical correspondence table between German Latin-alphabet graphemes/multigraphs and the Hebrew-letter spellings used for Mendelssohn's German. Hebrew, Aramaic, biblical names, and other foreign loanwords have been deliberately disregarded when drawing the correspondences. Important limitation Mendelssohn's Hebrew-letter German is not a strict one-to-one transliteration from printed German orthography. It is a German text written in Hebrew characters for Ashkenazi Jewish readers. The system is partly phonetic, partly orthographic, and partly shaped by Judeo-German/Yiddish reading habits. Therefore the table below is a reconstruction of regular correspondences, not a diplomatic transcription rulebook for every individual word. Source status labels Attested: directly visible in consulted OCR/snippet material from the online witnesses. Strongly inferred: required by the regular system and supported by closely parallel forms, but not independently attested in the limited OCR sample used here. Rare/loan-sensitive: the grapheme exists in German, but is rare in native vocabulary or normally appears in loans/proper names; included for completeness but not used as a primary basis.

This study proceeds directly from the sources of the Other/the Zionist, investigating their explicit formulations regarding the Arab Self. It questions whether we are truly in a state of absolute civilizational crushing in the face of this Other, as certain factions seek to propagate in order to sustain a permanent condition of alienation and defeatism before them.

Undoubtedly, a stereotypical profiling of the Arab Self exists within the Zionist intellect—which functions, in structural reality, as an extension of the European incubator and the paradigm of the supremacist white Western man confronting the Orient across its multiple representations. Zionist literature, in empirical fact, possessed a conventional, stereotypical image of the Arab Self that was, in its aggregate, a negative profiling. This image directly aligned with and reinforced the dominant Zionist propaganda aimed at distorting the Arab and maintaining a posture of civilizational exceptionalism over him, serving as a moral rationalization for the process of existential plunder executed by Zionism against him.

However, this study tracks an alternative dimension within the Zionist psyche—one that has been systematically obscured by the traditional Zionist propaganda apparatus and remained marginalized as a suppressed narrative . This is the image of the resisting, steadfast Arab, enduring across historical time in anticipation of the moment of ontological transformation to reclaim what Zionism has plundered and recover his authentic self.

The ultimate significance of this study resides in the fact that it is constructed through Hebrew/Zionist sources, rather than being a study in Arabic literature or poetry—which might otherwise be dismissed as a mere exercise in illusory self-glorification. Rather, its importance stems from its precise tracking of the image of the Arab Self through Hebrew sources channeled by one of the most prominent pioneers of Zionist poetry, capturing a neglected dimension of the conflict entirely insulated from the influence of the official Zionist state propaganda machine.

European Hebrew Journal - Researchers from all countries are invited to submit original scholarly manuscripts for the inaugural issue of EHJ. The journal welcomes contributions from university faculty, researchers, independent scholars, and doctoral candidates working across Hebrew studies, Jewish studies, Semitic linguistics, philology, theology, manuscript traditions, and related humanities fields.

המפתח לפתרון בין המגזרים נעוץ בהפרדה חכמה בין שני אינטרסים חיוניים: מצד אחד, שותפות אמיצה בקיומה, בביטחונה וביציבותה של המדינה המשותפת לכולנו, ומן הצד השני, זכותו וחובתו של כל מגזר לדאוג לערכיו, לטפח את צביונו המיוחד, להשיג את עצמאותו ביישוביו, ולהגן על עצמו מפני כפייה של מגזר אחר, או התערבות ממשלתית עוינת בתוך יישוביו. ד"ר ניחם רוס סבור כי ביזור סמכויות־פנים באמצעות אשכולות־בחירה יאפשר לכל מגזר לנהל חלק משמעותי מתקציבי הפנים המקומיים שלו בעצמו, בדיוק לפי ערכיו, על חשבונו ועל אחריותו

Il periodo delle legazioni corrisponde, per gli ebrei di Lugo, al periodo della reclusione nel ghetto. Nel quartiere del ghetto, che, nel convulso periodo napoleonico, subì ben tre saccheggi, gli ebrei lughesi vissero fino alla loro emancipazione, realizzatasi pienamente solo con la cessazione del dominio pontificio e l'instaurazione del regno sabaudo d' Italia. In questa sede si intende, quindi, trattare della Comunità ebraica lughese nei circa 250 anni, dal 1598 al 1859, in cui Lugo seguì le vicende della Legazione Pontificia di Ferrara, ed offrire, inoltre, gli attuali risultati, bibliografici e di analisi, di una ricerca che, avviata da chi scrive nel 1983, sta procedendo all' individuazione, alla raccolta e allo studio delle testimonianze documentarie di ambito ebraico (una settantina i pezzi finora individuati, in ebraico e in italiano, la cui consistenza varia dal singolo foglio a qualche centinaio), fornendo in tal modo un particolare contributo allo sviluppo delle indagini che stanno sempre meglio delineando le vicende ed i caratteri della presenza ebraica a Lugo. In particolare, dei registri ufficiali degli organismi amministrativi interni della Comunità per gli anni 1621-1869-individuati e localizzati nelle raccolte delle istituzioni israeliane, inglesi e nordamericane che, possedendoli in copia o in originale, ne consentono la fruibilità-si sono potuti qui utilizzare le parti italiane di quelli relativi agli anni 1670-1759 (analisi integrale) e 1826-1869 (sondaggi parziali).

Job 10 is among the most intense sections of the titular character's dialogue with friends, containing some of the harshest accusations directed towards God as the speaker’s Creator and once-intimate companion, who has nevertheless turned out to be an aggressive oppressor. It is an exceptional literary work which works on different registers (tragic, ironical, legal, personal) and is echoing in lived experience

This study examines the prevalent predicative utilization of the infinitive construct following the preposition l-(=l-+IC) in Phoenician, Punic and Neo-Punic. It compiles predicative l-+IC constructions through the different historical phases of Phoenician, providing a comprehensive insight into its use. Two distinct grammaticalization pathways of the l-+IC construction are suggested: obligatory attachment of the preposition l-to the IC, and its transition from adverbial to predicative usage. The varied modal functions of the independent predicative l-+IC construction are traced to these two primary processes. Widespread predicative use of the l-+IC in Late Biblical Hebrew and Qumran Hebrew is believed to echo Phoenician constructions-an outcome of the historically intensive language contact situation-underscoring its central role within the Phoenician linguistic structure.

La storia che questo saggio ha ricostruito è quella di due modi diversi di fare la stessa cosa: prendere un racconto che circola nel mondo e renderlo ebraico. Berechiah ha-Nakdan, nel XII-XIII secolo, prende la favola esopica del gatto e della volpe così come l'aveva formulata Marie de France e la innesta nella tradizione biblica e talmudica, modificandone la morale per farla parlare alle tensioni sociali della sua comunità. Bialik, nel 1920, prende un racconto folklorico dell'Europa orientale — non la stessa favola di Berechiah ma un tipo narrativo diverso — e lo trasforma in un testo ebraico per bambini che porta con sé un sistema di valori, una rete di riferimenti culturali, un senso di appartenenza. In entrambi i casi il gatto è lo strumento di questa operazione: un animale abbastanza comune da essere universalmente riconoscibile, abbastanza ambiguo da prestarsi a letture molteplici, abbastanza felice nel proprio corpo da sopravvivere a qualsiasi bosco.

Debates over biblical atrocity texts often fail before moral argument begins. Skeptics sometimes cite reports, laments, or prophetic oracles as though they were commands. Christian defenders sometimes treat actual commands as though they were mere reports, rhetorical excess, or morally neutral narrative. Both moves collapse classification. This paper argues that responsible critique and responsible defense require an initial hermeneutical discipline: determine whether the text is descriptive, prescriptive, poetic, prophetic, legal, narrative, or ritually framed before drawing moral conclusions. Classification does not solve the moral problem of biblical violence. It sharpens it. Once descriptive texts are not misused as commands, the critic's case becomes cleaner. Once prescriptive texts are not softened into descriptions, the defender's burden becomes clearer. The result is a more honest debate about herem, covenant scope, canonical development, divine command, and moral continuity. I develop this account in conversation with scholarship on war in the Hebrew Bible, ancient conquest rhetoric, biblical violence, and argumentation theory. The conclusion is methodological and moral: skeptics should stop overclaiming from the wrong texts, and Christians should stop underclaiming from the hard ones. A serious debate begins when both sides let the genre of the text determine the shape of the burden.

Das Hebräische hat sich zu allen Zeiten und in den unterschiedlichsten Ländern verändert und weiterentwickelt. Allen regionalen und zeitlichen Varianten zum Trotz diente diese Sprache immer auch als Identifikationsmoment. Hebrew has changed and evolved continuously and in many different countries. Despite all regional and temporal variations, this language has always served as a means of identification.

Genesis 37:13-24 is a poignant passage with Biblical Hebrew grammatical issues. The need for a sacrifice of the son (in the case of Genesis 37, Joseph, the beloved son of Israel, and in the case of Genesis 22, Isaac, the promised and obedient son of Abraham) is further developed. The sacrificial system will receive further elaboration during the sons of Israel’s initiation of the Passover sacrifice, their wandering in the wilderness in Exodus and Leviticus, and receives its culmination in Jesus’ sacrifice on the cross in the New Testament.

A two-column table (abbreviation,expansion) containing 975 curated abbreviation expansions for the Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (1906), as served via Sefaria and rendered in ChavrutAI's BDB dictionary reader at https://chavrutai.com/bdb.

BDB compresses scholarly apparatus into hundreds of abbreviations — sigla for biblical sources (J, E, P, D), grammatical labels (Pf., Impf., cstr.), cognate-language tags (Arabic, Sabean, Akkadian), and surname-plus-work references to 19th-century Semiticists (Wellhausen, Driver, Dillmann, Lagarde, Nöldeke, etc.). Without expansion, many modern readers struggle to use the lexicon. This file is the lookup table ChavrutAI applies at render time to make BDB legible.

Composition: Entries range from single capitals (A, B) to longer Latin-style multi-dot tokens (n.pr.m., term. techn.); 53 are multi-word phrases (e.g. Compl. Var., A B Co), 38 contain non-ASCII characters (German umlauts in äg., Bär, Hebrew gimel, Fraktur unicode glyphs 𝔊, 𝔐, 𝔖, 𝔗, 𝔙 for the Septuagint and other versions). 809 distinct expansion strings cover roughly nine semantic categories: scholars, scholarly works, journals & series, source-critical sigla, grammatical forms, cognate languages, geographic direction markers, biblical-text versions, and semantic/rhetorical hedges.

Provenance: Initially seeded from BDB's own front-matter abbreviation list (via Sefaria's digitised version at https://www.sefaria.org.il/BDB%2C_Abbrevations), then expanded via repeated corpus scans over the full ~5,250-headword BDB corpus, with high-frequency unmapped tokens added in successive passes. 

Editorial scope: Each row's expansion is intended to be substituted directly into BDB definition text, so expansions are kept short and noun-phrase-shaped (e.g. Driver, not S. R. Driver, Oxford Hebraist). Bible-book abbreviations (Gn, Ex, Lv …) are deliberately not included — they are handled separately via Sefaria's data-ref HTML attributes on inline citations. Ambiguous single-letter tokens (f., p., s., H., N., J., E., Roman numerals i.–iv.) are also deliberately excluded; they function as outline markers or context-dependent labels and would be wrong as often as right if auto-expanded.

In this draft I demonstrate that the first chapter of the book of Joel is a fine example of classical Hebrew poetry. The poem is composed of three 10-line cantos and a concluding canto of 4 poetic lines. In their turn the 10-line cantos divide into two canticles. The thematic caesuras between the cantos are supported by the linearly alternating pattern of (unique) word repetitions between the successive canticles and the concluding Canto IV. Most poetic lines are bicola. The poem stands out within classical Hebrew poetry in general, because in this case tricola only occur at the end of a canticle and of Canto IV.

The dominant exegetical consensus identifies Ezekiel
36:25–27 as the primary intertextual background for
Jesus's statement in John 3:5, "Except a man be born of
water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the king-
dom of God." This article proposes a complementary and
deeper cosmological reading: that hydatos in John 3:5
carries an ontological referent — the primordial tehom-
substrate of Genesis 1:2 — which underlies all water in
the created order and which a Torah-trained Pharisee
such as Nicodemus would have recognized as constitu-
tive of human genealogy. Drawing on the tehom–tiāmat
cognate relationship established in comparative Semitic
philology, on the cosmological continuity of waters in
Genesis 1, Job 26 and 38, and on Second Temple litera-
ture including 1 Enoch and Jubilees, this article argues
that "born of water" denotes genealogical descent from a
dying cosmological substrate, while "born of Spirit" de-
notes entrance into a new creation order through pneu-
matic rebirth in Christ. A critical further argument is ad-
vanced: that "living water" in John 4 and 7 is not a trans-
formation of tehom-water but a categorically new sub-
stance — kainē ktisis — generated within the new crea-
ture in Christ, whose ontological character is resurrec-
tion rather than entropy. This reading is shown to re-
solve the apparent redundancy in the water–Spirit bi-
nary, to account for the Pauline cosmology of Romans
8:19–22, and to establish a coherent eschatological trajectory toward the new creation of Revelation 21–22,
where the sea is absent and living water flows from the
throne.