Legal Translation

Prispevek obravnava vlogo in pomen sodnega tolmača v kazenskem postopku. Predstavlja tako normativno ureditev tega področja v Republiki Sloveniji kot tudi standarde sodnega tolmačenja z namenom vpogledati v delo in naloge tolmača ter zlasti njune posebnosti v kazenskem postopku. Uvodni razmislek o ustavni vlogi tolmača nadgradi s pregledom poglavitnih aktov, ki urejajo to področje, zlasti Direktive 2010/64/ EU, nato pa se podrobneje ločeno posveti problematiki tolmačenja in prevajanja. V obrisih sledi fazam in udeležencem kazenskega postopka ter na eni strani skuša skladno s tem pristopom delo tolmača sistemati- zirati, na drugi strani pa opozarja na specifike in izzive, katerih poznavanje, razumevanje in premoščanje je temeljnega pomena za zagotavljanje pravic ter uresničevanje procesnih jamstev udeležencem postopka, ki potrebujejo tolmačenje oziroma prevajanje.

The role and work of a court interpreter in criminal proceedings

The article examines the role and significance of court interpreters in criminal proceedings. It presents both the regulatory framework of this field in the Republic of Slovenia and the standards of court inter- preting, aiming to provide insight into the work and duties of interpreters, particularly in relation to cri- minal proceedings. An introductory reflection on the constitutional role of interpreters is expanded with an overview of the key legal acts governing this area, especially Directive 2010/64/EU. The article then explores the issues of interpreting and translation in this context. It outlines the stages and participants of criminal proceedings, seeking, on the one hand, to systematize the work of interpreters in accordance with this approach and, on the other hand, to highlight the specificities and challenges whose awareness, understanding, and overcoming are essential for ensuring the rights and guarantees of participants in the proceedings who require interpretation or translation.

Nigerian legal English continues to retain archaisms in judicial writing, reflecting both linguistic
traditions and the institutional authority of the courts. This study investigates the stylistic roles of
such archaic expressions within a lexical semantic framework grounded in Cruse (1986). Adopting
a qualitative, corpus-informed approach, the research compiles a structured dataset of archaic
forms extracted from eleven annotated judgments spanning four judicial tiers: the Supreme Court,
Court of Appeal, Federal High Court, and National Industrial Court. The data were purposively
sampled to ensure representation across different time periods and institutional contexts, with each
instance of archaism systematically tagged with relevant metadata, including court, case title, year,
and immediate linguistic environment. This procedure yielded a searchable corpus that enables
detailed stylistic and semantic analysis. The study aims to identify the distribution, frequency, and
communicative functions of archaisms in contemporary Nigerian legal discourse. Findings reveal
that archaisms remain pervasive across courts and historical periods, performing multiple, often
overlapping functions, such as enhancing semantic precision, structuring legal texts, maintaining
intertextual continuity, and symbolically reinforcing judicial authority. The analysis further
conceptualizes legal language as a “living archive,” wherein historical linguistic forms are
preserved and dynamically recontextualized within modern judicial communication. While the
persistence of archaisms contributes to the continuity, formality, and prestige of legal discourse, it
also raises concerns regarding accessibility and comprehensibility for non-specialist audiences.
The study therefore underscores the need for a balanced approach that preserves valuable linguistic
traditions while simultaneously promoting clarity and inclusiveness in contemporary legal
practice.

Various strands of research have focused on the applicability of GenAI and LLMs in the legal field. Some scholars have investigated the quality of legal translations performed by chatbots, although there is still a paucity of studies addressing the employment of legal chatbots for legal translation purposes. This paper wishes to address this epistemological lacuna. To this aim, an extract of an Italian contratto di mutuo (“loan agreement”) is translated automatically into English by employing three field-related GenAI tools, namely, AptusAI, ChatLaw, and FreeLawChat. A corpus-assisted translation of the same source text is used as a benchmark through which the automated translations are assessed. The findings bring to the fore a host of shortcomings in the automatic target texts, ranging from infrequent language patterns, literal translations of formulae, wrong collocations, informal language, and omissions of phrases. Therefore, the paper highlights the importance of human expert oversight to guarantee accuracy.

Translation is almost always conducted within a certain socio-cultural framework with its particular ideology. In the present study, the application of various shift types in two legal translations was examined to show how socio-cultural and ideological inclinations of the translator affect adequacy and acceptability in translation. Two legal texts in English (the Geneva Interim Agreement and NPT) and their Persian translations released by IRI’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs formed the corpus of the study. The analysis of the translations indicated the lack of ideological and cultural shifts and the presence of structural and stylistic shifts. Legal texts are highly sensitive and need the utmost precision in their translation. These requirements could make ideological and cultural shifts out of the question in legal translation. The results, therefore, suggest that in legal translation training, attention should be devoted to structural and stylistic shifts.  As for the adequacy and a...

Introduction ver the years, Google Translate, Microsoft Translator, and IBM Watson Language Translator have made translating content quicker and more accurate from a linguistic perspective (Slosarek et al., 2024). Expertise in these tools is now spreading to two-sided situations, making the difference between human and machine translations (MT) less noticeable. However, MT systems now do better with syntax and vocabulary, but their ability to convey meaning in daily and culturally rich situations remains a significant challenge (Ennouari & Houssaini, 2024). In addition, using English and Arabic on the same signs can lead to funny results when the Arabic translation is not quite right. They demonstrate that mistakes made by MT can bemuse and disorient listeners, revealing that important pragmatic and cultural messages are being missed (Lesmana, 2021).

With the adoption of the Law on the application of English as one of the international languages of communication in Ukraine in June
2024, the importance of English in our lives has increased.
According to Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFRL), a person learning English should master four types
of language activities: receptive (listening and reading), productive (speaking and writing), interactive (speaking and writing), and mediative
(translation and interpretation).
In our research, we studied English written speech as a productive and interactive type of language activities: we identified the factors
that prevent the development of written speech and, based on them, developed an approach to teaching writing that would develop necessary
skills and abilities.
Having analyzed the survey, we determined main and secondary issues that prevent students from developing English writing skills. We
studied that students experience difficulties in operating lexical and grammatical structures when writing essays, do not have sufficient
knowledge about the forms and formats of essays, and the hours devoted to the development of writing skills are not enough. The secondary
issues include the fear of teachers’ and groupmates’ negative evaluation, and the lack of ideas that could be used in students’ essays.
After analyzing the students’ answers, we developed the following approach to teaching English written speech: mastering lexical and
grammatical structures that correspond to the essay topic, collective discussion of the ideas that can be used in the essay, mastering the
features of each paragraph of the essay separately from each other, writing the first draft of the essay, which involves feedback from the
teacher and making certain corrections, the final essay.
It was concluded that cognitive and somatic types of anxiety prevail among students during the development of writing skills, and the
factors that cause anxiety are cognitive and sociolinguistic. The approach to the study of writing is only a proposal and needs a probationary
period, as well as making possible corrections.

Machine translation received intensive research in different language pairs; yet, the quality of specialized translation; e.g., legal translation, from Arabic into English received little attention. The present study investigates the quality of machine translation of legal texts from Arabic into English. The paper aims at examining the errors found in the machine translation of legal texts from Arabic into English. It also studies the legal discourse features in machine-translation output. The research questions tackle the accuracy of machine translation of legal discourse and error categories and frequencies in machine translation. The researcher evaluated several factors to assess the quality of Google Translate; i.e., lexical, syntactic, and register-related errors. The study data consists of five legislative texts. The researcher conducted a manual error assessment and classification. To ensure the reliability of the error analysis, an existing human translation of the documents was used as a reference to ensure the reliability of the MT quality assessment and postediting process. Later, the errors were classified, and their percentages and frequencies were calculated. A few examples of errors in each category were discussed and analysed. The highest error category was lexical errors scoring 43.4%. The last detected error category was deletion with a percentage of 1.7%. Syntactic errors constituted one-fourth of the errors found in the data. Legal register-related errors scored 30.2%. The subcategories of legal register-related errors varied in their occurrence; e.g., one-third of the errors related to legal discourse were legal terms. The study concluded that machine translation; though it provided a comprehensible output, could not translate legal structures and terminology perfectly.

The aim of the present study was to find out whether there is a relationship between the interpreting and translating abilities in advanced students majoring in translation and whether the achievement level in one skill is affected by development in the other. Is a student who is a good translator a good interpreter as well? Is a student who is a poor translator a poor interpreter? 36 senior students (in level 9) majoring in translation were taught liaison interpreting and the oil translation courses by the author. The interpreting and translation data were collected at the end of the semester.  Each score represented the composite score of the course, which consisted of 2 interm tests and a final exam.  Results showed that in the oil industry course, the typical score was 69.5% compared to 65% in the liaison interpreting course.  There were wide variations among the students in their translation and interpreting scores and hence translating and interpreting abilities as revealed by the standard deviation (15.45 for translation & 12.33 for interpreting) and standard error statistics (2.73 & 2.18, respectively). Results show that the translation and interpreting courses are related. The correlation coefficient between the translation and interpreting skills was .72 and was significant at the .01 level. However, results of the T-test showed no significant differences between the translation and interpreting mean scores (T = 1.64).  It can be inferred from the translation and interpreting results that a student who is a good translator is also a good interpreter, and a student who is a poor translator is also a poor interpreter. Both translation and interpreting share and require common skills.

The architecture of post-conflict justice has long been dominated by imported institutional models that prioritize retributive accountability, centralized adjudication, and standardized procedural norms. While these frameworks have achieved notable successes, they frequently encounter a legitimacy deficit when applied to societies with deeply embedded customary dispute resolution traditions, communal healing practices, and decentralized authority structures. The result is often alienation, low community participation, and fragile reconciliation that collapses once international presence withdraws. Restorative Justice Across Cultures emerges from this structural inadequacy. It does not reject international human rights standards, nor does it romanticize traditional practices. Instead, it constructs a rigorous, hybrid jurisprudential framework that integrates indigenous legal heritage with universal rights obligations, ensuring accountability while preserving cultural legitimacy. This reference work bridges comparative case law, doctrinal analysis, institutional design, and actionable policy tools. It is structured for judges, transitional justice commissioners, legislative drafters, scholars, and practitioners who require precise legal frameworks capable of governing post-conflict reconciliation without sacrificing human dignity, gender equality, or procedural fairness. The goal is operational realism: a justice architecture that heals communities, prevents recurrence, and institutionalizes pluralistic accountability in an era where uniformity no longer guarantees legitimacy .

Use of foreign language elements in military terminology is an integral
part of modern language practice. They contribute to effective communication within the framework of international cooperation, but at the same time cause problems related to misunderstandings, confusion and reducing linguistic autonomy. Thus, it is important to develop an appropriate, adapted terminology that meets modern requirements, but at the same time preserves linguistic identity and clarity for a wide range of users.

modelo integrador de Hurtado (1994) 2.1.1. Funcionamiento textual del original 2.1.2. Modalidades de traducción en la traducción jurídica 2.1.3. La naturaleza de la traducción jurídica 2.1.4. Dirección 2.1.5. Métodos de traducción en la traducción jurídica 3. Propuesta didáctica 3.1. Objetivos de aprendizaje y metodología 3.1.1. Conocimiento del funcionamiento del mercado laboral 3.1.2. Dominio del campo temático 3.1.3. Clasificación de los textos legales en géneros y subgéneros 3.1.4. Dominio de las fuentes de documentación 3.1.5. Dominio de la terminología jurídica 3.1.6. Reformulación en lengua término (1 of 20) [17/04/03 09:59:44 a.m.]

to the journal of the International Language and Law Society (www.illa.org). All manner of all scientific discourse is couched in language. This holds for language in the domain of law with a vengeance: all concepts in law are linguistically constituted and expressed. All legally relevant meanings and contexts are transported through the vehicle of language. They are thus created through and in language, and cannot therefore be independent of language, just as the law cannot be independent of society, which is where language resides. While the laws of nature would be valid even if nobody would ever have verbalized them, the laws of society only come about via communication. The laws of society do not exist before they are debated and negotiated. The "meaning"-and the change of meaning-of concepts in law, as well as the "interpretation" of terms is to a large extent some kind of linguistic analysis, with attendant and persistent problems including issues of vagueness, ambiguity, precision and "plainness". Apart from this inherent fundamental affinity between language and law, there are numerous ways in which the legal process at various stages involves language in negotiations or contestations, such as court proceedings or police interviews, for which linguistic analysis has developed well-established concepts of description and explanation. These concepts can be taken up to elucidate the legal process and help analyze and teach successful procedure. Language, languages, and dialects are themselves often the issue in many legal procedures around the world, apart from the language-related issues of access to justice. In addition, there are many ways in which law, language and society are inextricably interrelated. Law-makers and judges should be supplied with a body of scientific knowledge to draw upon in making their decisions. It is therefore appropriate that an international society should advance and focus research on the interdependence of language and law in all of its facets, from theoretical approaches to the resolution of practical issues. With the world moving together ever closer in trade, law and communication, it is appropriate that the study of language in law comprise all points of interface between these disciplines. As these issues appear in law generally and are not restricted to a particular

The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs), exemplified by the emergence of ChatGPT and its successor iterations like GPT-5o, has fundamentally altered the landscape of natural language processing and its intersection with classical philology. In the specific context of the Arabic language—a tongue characterized by its profound historical depth, intricate morphosyntactic structures, and extensive use of figurative expression—the ability of artificial intelligence to navigate the nuances of “lebs” or “iltibās” (semantic ambiguity) represents a critical frontier for both linguistic theory and computational application. This study provides a clear evaluation of the capacity of LLMs to identify, distinguish, and resolve multi-layered ambiguities in Arabic, contrasting the statistical paradigms of modern AI with the epistemological heritage of classical Arabic linguistics.

The importance of this research stems from the increasing reliance on AI as an epistemic authority in fields ranging from legal translation to academic pedagogy. In Arabic, ambiguity is not merely a linguistic anomaly but a functional feature resulting from the symbol-meaning dichotomy where a single signifier may encompass a plurality of signifieds. While human cognition utilizes five core competencies—linguistic, epistemic, logical, perceptual, and social—to resolve such overlaps, AI models operate primarily through statistical processing and data-driven patterns. This study is significant because it scrutinizes whether the “human-like” responses of ChatGPT represent a true understanding of linguistic depth or merely a sophisticated simulation of frequency-based probabilities. By bridging the gap between traditional philological categories (as discussed by scholars like al-Sakkākī and al-Zemakhsharī) and modern Natural Language Processing (NLP) challenges, the research establishes a new methodological framework for assessing AI’s linguistic “intelligence”.

The study employs a qualitative, descriptive, and comparative methodology. To ensure a comprehensive evaluation, a stratified sampling of linguistic examples was selected, representing four distinct levels of ambiguity: lexical, syntactic, semantic (including metaphor and idioms), and pragmatic (illocutionary). These examples were drawn from authoritative classical sources, such as Ẓâhirtü’l-lebs fi’l-luġa’l-ʿarabiyya and Lisânu’l-ʿArab, ensuring that the AI was tested against established historical and grammatical benchmarks.

The technical analysis utilized ChatGPT’s GPT-5o model in “Temporary Chat” mode to eliminate biases from prior user interactions. The inquiry process involved a tiered questioning strategy: first, requesting a basic translation or interpretation; second, specifically asking for alternative interpretations; and third, challenging the model’s reasoning when it prioritized one meaning over another. The model’s performance was then evaluated based on four criteria: the ability to identify alternative meanings, the capacity to distinguish grammatical possibilities, the incorporation of contextual/cultural cues, and the degree of alignment with historical lexicographical records.

The research findings indicate that ChatGPT demonstrates a partial but inconsistent success in managing Arabic polysemy. The model’s performance varies significantly across the four levels of analysis:

At the lexical level, the model often falls prey to “usage frequency effects”. When presented with words like sāʾil (which can mean “one who asks” or “liquid”), the model successfully provided both meanings. However, with less frequent homographs like zāʾir (which can mean “visitor” or “roaring”), the model almost exclusively prioritized the modern, high-frequency meaning of “visitor,” ignoring the archaic or literary “roaring” entirely. This suggests that the model’s internal prioritization mechanism often suppresses low-frequency semantic layers in favor of the dominant data distribution in its training set.

In the realm of syntax (nahw), the model occasionally identifies multiple structural possibilities, such as in sentences involving pronoun references (merci). For instance, in a sentence where a pronoun could refer to either a “mother” or a “sister,” ChatGPT correctly identified the ambiguity but then utilized what the study terms “artificial logic” to justify one choice. It argued that since someone “stayed with” likely requires care, the “mother” must be the sick one, thereby imposing a social norm onto a purely linguistic possibility and potentially misleading users who require unbiased grammatical analysis.

The most significant failures occurred at the semantic and figurative levels. ChatGPT frequently struggled with archaic idioms and metaphors, often providing literal or “hallucinated” interpretations based on modern word associations. For example, the classical expression ḍahā zilluh (meaning “he passed away”) was interpreted literally by the model as “his shadow shone like the morning,” completely missing the historically sedimented meaning. Furthermore, the model showed a tendency to overlay religious or moralistic interpretations from its training data onto neutral linguistic structures, such as interpreting a commercial idiom as a violation of “Islamic trade ethics” when the classical dictionary meaning was simply “to replace someone”.

At the pragmatic level, the study found that the model lacks “human-in-the-world” context. While it could list potential meanings for a question like “Shall we call the police?”, it failed to intuitively grasp the “threat” or “deterrent” function of such a phrase in a high-tension social context unless explicitly prompted. This underscores the gap between statistical processing and the social/perceptual skills inherent in human communication.

This study makes several original contributions to the field of computational linguistics and Arabic philology. First, it systematically categorizes the types of “semantic noise” generated by LLMs when dealing with a high-context language like Arabic. Second, it highlights the “frequency bias” in AI, warning that reliance on these models may lead to a “semantic flattening” where archaic, poetic, or nuanced meanings are lost to the hegemony of modern standard data. Third, the research offers a critical perspective on “AI literacy,” suggesting that users, especially those in academic and translation fields—must adopt a “corroborative approach,” using AI as a starting point rather than a final authority.

The study concludes that while ChatGPT is a powerful tool for handling explicit grammatical structures and high-frequency translations, it remains incapable of fully replicating the historical depth and contextual awareness of the human mind. The model’s tendency to provide a singular, statistically likely answer rather than an array of linguistic possibilities can lead to significant misinformation if not managed through iterative “chain-of-thought” prompting.

To mitigate these limitations, the study proposes that future AI development must involve the integration of historical lexicographical databases and classical corpora into the training and fine-tuning phases. Furthermore, the study advocates for the development of “ambiguity-aware” interfaces that automatically flag polysemous expressions for the user rather than silently resolving them through statistical probability. Ultimately, the research reaffirms that in the sophisticated landscape of the Arabic language, human expertise remains indispensable for navigating the profound complexities of meaning.

Збірник матеріалів Міжнародної наукової конференції 14 травня 2026 р. м. Львів Львів -2026 УДК 340.12:342.22(477)(091)(063) М 42 Рекомендовано до друку кафедрою історії, держави та політико-правових учень юридичного факультету Львівського національного університету імені Івана Франка. Протокол № 11 від 01 травня 2026 р. Матеріали друкуються в авторській редакції. Відповідальність за зміст публікацій, точність наведених фактів, інших відомостей покладено на авторів. Наведені авторами думки і висновки можуть не збігатися з точкою зору редакційної колегії. М 42 Ідея правової держави в українській та світовій політико-правовій думці: історія і сучасність: збірник матеріалів Міжнародної наукової конференції (м. Львів, 14 травня 2026 р.) / І.Й. Бойко (голова редколегії), Ю.В. Олійник (відп. секр.). -Львів, 2026. -328 с. У збірнику представлено стислий виклад наукових статей, які доповідалися на Міжнародній науковій конференції «Ідея правової держави в українській та світовій політико-правовій думці: історія і сучасність». Для науковців, аспірантів, студентів, усіх тих, хто цікавиться історією політико-правових вчень, держави та права. УДК 340.12:342.22(477)(091)(063) © Кафедра історії держави, права та політико-правових учень Львівського національного університету імені Івана Франка, 2026

Вступ. Юридичний переклад є однією з найзапитуваніших галузей спеціялізованого перекладу в сучасному глобалізованому світі. Попит на якісний переклад правничих текстів дедалі зростає. Попри це німецько українська юридична термінографія та перекладознавство досі характеризуються обмеженістю ресурсів і браком систематизації наявних праць. Переклад у галузі конституційного права досі лишався поза увагою дослідників. Матеріялом дослідження є текст Основного закону ФРН та його перший офіційний переклад українською мовою (2024).

Методи. Пропоноване дослідження ґрунтується на системно-прескриптивній парадигмі та поєднує кількісний (корпусний) і якісний підходи. Для дослідження створено перекладний корпус Grundgesetz (1286 сегментів) у програмі memoQ. Методою збору даних є параметризований корпусний пошук. Методами розбору є система тизація (виявлення значущих для дослідження перекладацьких рішень, організація даних у логічні структури), аналітика (порівняльний розбір рекурентних патернів варіятивности перекладацьких рішень), статистика (дескриптивний статистичний розбір об'єкта дослідження) та рефлексія (критичне осмислення дослід ницьких припущень і методологічних обмежень).

Результати. Здійснене дослідження підтвердило дві авторські евристичні гіпотези. Доведено зокрема, що, по-перше, українські перекладачі демонструють несистемність у збереженні послідовности первотвору, а по-друге, що загальновживана лексика демонструє вищий рівень варіятивности відтворення порівняно з власне правничою лексикою, що можна пояснити відповідним фокусуванням перекладацької уваги й нехту ванням умовно фоновою лексикою.

Висновки. Виявлені за допомогою параметризованого корпусного пошуку випадки термінологічної та синтаксичної непослідовности засвідчують як евристичний потенціял обраної методології, так і її певні обмеження. До переваг корпусного підходу належать можливість кількісної верифікації гіпотез, система тичність виявлення повторюваних патернів та об'єктивізація оцінювання послідовности перекладацьких рішень. Водночас виявлено критичні обмеження: неможливість автоматично розрізнити функційно вмотиво вану та невмотивовану непослідовність без додаткового якісного розбору, опосередкований характер коре ляції між кількісними показниками послідовности та загальною якістю перекладу, а також технічна неможливість автоматизованого виявлення різновідмінкових патернів. Отже, для оцінювання якости галузе вого перекладу оптимальним є поєднання кількісних і якісних метод, що компенсують взаємні обмеження. Висновки дослідження актуалізують необхідність інституціоналізації якісного контролю юридичних перекладів.

La comunicación con personas reclusas extranjeras dentro de los centros penitenciarios (CPs) implica la necesidad de servicios de tra- ducción e interpretación (T&I), que, en este contexto, aúna los sec- tores de la traducción e interpretación en los servicios públicos (TISP). Pese a tratarse de un ámbito de la TISP, según demuestran varios estudios, en los CPs de España se permite el uso de personas reclusas o del personal penitenciario con conocimiento de las lenguas como intérpretes ad hoc. El objetivo principal de este artículo es des- cribir la situación de la comunicación interlingüística en CPs, así como las dificultades y las necesidades actuales desde la perspectiva del personal penitenciario de un CP que se utilizó como estudio de caso. Se aportará información sobre las dificultades comunicativas que percibe el personal penitenciario con las personas reclusas extranjeras, las medidas aplicadas y su opinión sobre la necesidad potencial de un servicio profesional de T&I. Los resultados obteni- dos contribuyeron a la propuesta de soluciones.

L'articolo analizza i trattati internazionali sull'ambiente concentrandosi sulla componente pragmatica delle disposizioni di soft law. Attraverso un approccio corpus-based e contrastivo, lo studio esamina i tratti linguistici e retorici dei testi in inglese paragonandoli alle traduzioni italiane a opera dell'Unione Europea e della Confederazione Svizzera. I risultati mostrano una tendenza al rafforzamento della normatività e della dimensione pragmatica, soprattutto nelle traduzioni svizzere. Evidenziano inoltre un relativo margine di libertà per il traduttore, che opta talvolta per soluzioni più allineate allo scopo del trattato.

Inteligencia artificial, innovación docente, Traducción económica, Informática aplicada a la traducción, gestión de textos especializados, traducción automática, traducción artificial, revisión de textos, Power Platform, análisis de métricas MQM. Resumen: La traducción se encuentra entre las actividades económicas más transformadas por los procesos de automatización; ello hace necesario incluir nuevas competencias tecnológicas en la formación. La gestión lingüística se ha constituido como nueva profesión, debido al rápido desarrollo de aplicaciones basadas en el procesamiento del lenguaje natural y, en concreto, de la traducción artificial. Con estas circunstancias en mente, dentro de un proyecto previo de innovación docente (Traducistán) en el Grado de Traducción e Interpretación (Universidad Pontificia Comillas), se ha realizado un ejercicio práctico en las asignaturas Traducción económica inglés-español e Informática aplicada a la traducción, para incluir nuevas competencias digitales relacionadas con la inteligencia artificial. El ejercicio ha consistido en un proyecto de gestión de textos financieros especializados sometidos a traducción automática y a los correspondientes procesos de gestión empresarial para el uso de los textos en la vida económica y corporativa. Las competencias cubiertas son la pretraducción, posedición, revisión, métricas por MQM y medición de distancia de Levenshtein. Los resultados del ejercicio piloto se han publicado en Traducistán. En la siguiente fase se pretende seguir desarrollando esta estructura mediante la inclusión del manejo de herramientas de gestión empresarial tales como Power Platform © de Microsoft (concretamente, Power BI©), que permitan la maquetación y publicación de resultados cuantitativos. Con todo ello se pretende exponer al alumnado a una primera aproximación al trabajo multilingüístico de gestión de datos procesados con inteligencia artificial, que va mucho más allá de la traducción o maquetación de textos en el sentido tradicional.

The purpose of this paper is to collect a set of features that can contribute to the linguistic characterization of the institutional textual genre. The aim is to describe as exhaustively as possible the archetypal text to be obtained as a target text in this type of specialized translation. The tools used were Orange Data Mining© and Google Colab (Python code), and the data was obtained using the following processing mechanisms: word cloud, text preprocessing (cleaning, tokenization, normalization, lemmatization and PoS annotation). With these tools, lexical and grammatical frequencies, lexical and documentary embeddings, cosine distances, hierarchical clustering, and 20-component dimensionality reduction (t-SNE) were extracted. As a result, a series of useful descriptive parameters have been obtained for the characterization of model texts for economic translation of institutional domains into Spain Spanish: lexical and terminological density, phraseological and terminological lexicalizations, grammatical frequencies, and semantic maps. In conclusion, the study provides several quantifiable features that characterize the analyzed register and opens the way for further research to deepen these parameters and develop the research by searching for complementary parameters until a complete and exhaustive picture of the reference model in this genre is obtained.

En la actualidad, la traducción automática (TA) ha venido cobrando gran relevancia en la comunicación intercultural y en la transferencia de conocimiento multilingüe gracias a los avances en inteligencia artificial y el procesamiento del lenguaje natural. Sin embargo, a pesar de los grandes avances en la última década, seguimos encontrándonos con retos significativos, especialmente en la calidad de las traducciones, lo que subraya la necesidad de la intervención humana especializada. Esta comunicación examina los desafíos actuales que supone la TA, la evolución de sus tecnologías y la relevancia del trabajo del traductor humano en el proceso de posedición.

This article examines the translation strategies used in the French version of Ruwan Bagaja, a landmark work of Hausa literature written by Alhaji Abubakar Imam. Drawing on translation theories by Vinay and Darbelnet, Nida, Baker, and Munday, the study highlights borrowing, calque, literal translation, adaptation, transposition, modulation, and equivalence techniques. The analysis reveals a careful balance between fidelity to the source text and readability for French-speaking audiences. This approach emphasizes the role of translation as a tool for intercultural mediation in postcolonial contexts. The article concludes by underlining the need for further research on translating African literatures to enhance their global recognition and dissemination. Résumé Cet article explore les stratégies de traduction mobilisées dans la version française de Ruwan Bagaja, oeuvre emblématique de la littérature hausa écrite par Alhaji Abubakar Imam. En s'appuyant sur les théories traductologiques de Vinay et Darbelnet, Nida, Baker et Munday, l'étude met en lumière les procédés tels que l'emprunt, le calque, la traduction littérale, l'adaptation, la transposition, la modulation et l'équivalence. L'analyse révèle un équilibre entre fidélité au texte source et lisibilité pour le lectorat francophone. Cette démarche souligne le rôle de la traduction comme médiation interculturelle dans les contextes postcoloniaux. L'article conclut sur la nécessité de poursuivre les recherches sur la traduction des littératures africaines pour favoriser leur diffusion et reconnaissance à l'échelle mondiale.

В настоящей статье представлены и проанализированы некоторые особенности дипломатического устного последовательного перевода. Исходя из характеристики коммуникативного акта в межъязыковой коммуникации, автор настоящей статьи попытался выявить основные отличия дипломатического устного перевода от других видов устного перевода, заостряя внимание на особенностях участников коммуникации, коммуникативного канала, содержания коммуникации, средств выражения и коммуникативного эффекта, ожидаемого от дипломатического коммуникативного акта.

Los falsos amigos semánticos representan un reto para los traductores, especialmente entre lenguas próxi-
mas como el francés y el español, por la dificultad de identificarlos y evitar confusiones. Aunque existen
estudios teóricos al respecto, las propuestas prácticas sobre su tratamiento en la formación de traductores
son escasas. Por ello, este artículo presenta una propuesta didáctica con actividades, tareas y recursos para
trabajar los falsos amigos parciales del francés en clases de Traducción general. El objetivo es desarrollar la
intuición de los estudiantes, fomentar la reflexión sobre los problemas de traducción y explorar equivalen-
cias adecuadas en español. La propuesta es flexible y puede adaptarse a otros contextos educativos para
contribuir así a la mejora de la competencia traductora.

La didattica delle lingue classiche trova nell’Intelligenza artificiale tanto uno strumento utile nei percorsi individualizzati quanto un formidabile ostacolo alla pratica della traduzione. In Italia tale problema è particolarmente avvertito nel Liceo classico, in cui il latino e il greco costituiscono le discipline di indirizzo. Le recenti Linee guida emanate nel 2025 dal Ministero dell’Istruzione e del Merito, mentre regolano il ricorso all’IA in ambiente scolastico, non tengono conto di un suo utilizzo ‘domestico’ da parte dei discenti.
La relazione tenuta nel corso della Conferenza mira a riflettere, attraverso alcuni casi di studio, su alcuni aspetti positivi e alcuni limiti dell’IA integrata nel curricolo liceale e nella pratica della traduzione.

One of the skills that is most evidently required to be a good professional
linguistic mediator (writer/translator) is textual and communicative
competence, which includes the ability to understand and produce texts that conform to the conventions of the specialized languages being working with.
This skill is particularly significant in the case of specialized writing or
language for specific purposes where the fact that the translator/writer has to work with texts that require a much deeper conceptual and contextual
knowledge determines the way in which textual competence should be
acquired and applied.
One of the main objectives of the GENTT Research Group (Textual Genres
for Translation, GÉNeros Textuales para la Traducción in Spanish) is to
provide translators and writers of professional texts with text models and
patterns that they can use for textual, conceptual, linguistic and
terminological reference. The corpus design also intends to create a
knowledge management system, similar to terminological knowledge
representation systems but structured around the notion of genre, both for
translators and writers of professional texts (Borja, 2005; Dam et alii, 2005).
The GENTT project team works on the multilingual study of genres in
professional legal, medical and technical contexts to identify genre
conventions (lexicon, syntax, style, rhetorical structure and devices, etc) by
means of a hypothetic deductive approach using corpus technologies (García Izquierdo, ed., 2005). The project started in 2000 and has focused on the compilation of a multilingual (Catalan, English, German, Spanish and
French) annotated corpus of specialized discourse texts for research and
teaching purposes. In this context, this contribution presents the evolution of the project from the initial discussion of its theoretical background to the compilation and annotation phases, and puts forward some ideas for its future exploitation in the fields of specialized translation and LSP training.

This paper sheds light on the lexical challenges university graduate translators face when rendering Arabic legal texts into English. It seeks particularly to examine the impact of lexical peculiarities of legal language in attaining the desired legal effect in the TT since the lack of these lexical ones leads to create significant legal translation obstacles. The paper analyses qualitatively and quantitively the translations of five Arabic legal texts into English by ( ) graduate students from Jadara University, Jordan grounded on Šarčević's model of functional equivalence and lexical features of legal language. The study has revealed that the eminent lexical challenges noticed in this particular area are signalled by the pervasiveness of partial legal equivalence followed by the near legal equivalence. Furthermore, the absence of formality, synonyms, highly specialized terms and inappropriate equivalence are found to create a major lexical barrier to rendering Arabic legal documents into English. In contrast, the absence of proper modality, couplings, and archaic terms are proven to play a minor role in complicating this task. The said lexical challenges are proven to contribute enormously to the distortion of the desired legal effect in the TT, notably associated with the obliviousness to the lexical conventions and technicality peculiar to legal language, high dependency on machine, literal translation in conjunction with a noticeable semantic and linguistic incompetence in the language involved. Additionally, Šarčević's functional equivalence is noticed to be of a reasonably potential utility for choosing the fitting legal equivalence in this arena.

Background: Translating commercial contracts between Arabic and English is complicated by profound asymmetries between Civil Law jurisdictions (Egypt, Saudi Arabia) and Common Law jurisdictions (UK, US). Katharina Reiss's ( ) functional text-type theory and Susan Šarčević's (1997, 2021) legalfunctional equivalence model individually fail to provide a comprehensive procedural framework for addressing these asymmetries. Objective: To develop and empirically validate the Dual-Equivalence Procedural (DEP) Model, a replicable three-stage framework integrating communicative and legal equivalence for professional and academic use in Arabic-English contract translation. Methods: A qualitative-comparative analysis was applied to a mini-corpus of 36 contractual provisions drawn from 12 authentic commercial agreements (6 Arabic, 6 English). Each provision was rendered in two versionscommunicative-only and DEP-informed -and evaluated using the Dual-Equivalence Scoring Framework (DESF), a five-criterion ordinal instrument (0-2 per criterion; maximum 10). Inter-rater reliability was assessed via Cohen's Kappa (κ) with bootstrap confidence intervals (1,000 iterations). Results: DEP-based translations achieved a mean DESF score of 8.18/10 versus 5.42/10 for communicative-only translations. The difference was statistically significant (t(35) = 14.73, SD = 1.12, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 2.46). Inter-rater reliability was κ = 0.87 (almost perfect agreement). Conclusions: Communicative equivalence alone is insufficient for legally binding Arabic-English contract translation. The DEP Model and DESF instrument together provide an empirically validated procedural and evaluative framework for professional practice and academic training.

Machine translation (MT) has made huge strides in the last few decades. There are many strands of research dedicated to analysing the various types and advantages of MT, such as those related to statistical machine translation (SMT), and neural machine translation (NMT). Nonetheless, there are still a few shortcomings that the literature addresses and warns against. Also, little has been investigated regarding the quality of SMT or NMT with respect to corpus evidence. This paper aims to bridge this gap by exploring the quality and accuracy of SMT and NMT in the translation, from English into Italian, of a text in the financial field. To this aim, it compares MT outputs and corpus results by addressing an extract of a newspaper article sourced from the financial press. The paper findings report that NMT performs better in terms of word order and grammar accuracy, whereas SMT is more effective with naturally sounding words and sector-specific terms. The paper claims the high reliability of corpus data. As a matter of fact, not only does corpus evidence show language patterns and word usages in context, but it also suggests collocations and a variety of alternative terms in specific contexts.

Background: Translating commercial contracts between Arabic and English is complicated by profound asymmetries between Civil Law jurisdictions (Egypt, Saudi Arabia) and Common Law jurisdictions (UK, US). Katharina Reiss's ( ) functional text-type theory and Susan Šarčević's (1997, 2021) legalfunctional equivalence model individually fail to provide a comprehensive procedural framework for addressing these asymmetries. Objective: To develop and empirically validate the Dual-Equivalence Procedural (DEP) Model, a replicable three-stage framework integrating communicative and legal equivalence for professional and academic use in Arabic-English contract translation. Methods: A qualitative-comparative analysis was applied to a mini-corpus of 36 contractual provisions drawn from 12 authentic commercial agreements (6 Arabic, 6 English). Each provision was rendered in two versionscommunicative-only and DEP-informed -and evaluated using the Dual-Equivalence Scoring Framework (DESF), a five-criterion ordinal instrument (0-2 per criterion; maximum 10). Inter-rater reliability was assessed via Cohen's Kappa (κ) with bootstrap confidence intervals (1,000 iterations). Results: DEP-based translations achieved a mean DESF score of 8.18/10 versus 5.42/10 for communicative-only translations. The difference was statistically significant (t(35) = 14.73, SD = 1.12, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 2.46). Inter-rater reliability was κ = 0.87 (almost perfect agreement). Conclusions: Communicative equivalence alone is insufficient for legally binding Arabic-English contract translation. The DEP Model and DESF instrument together provide an empirically validated procedural and evaluative framework for professional practice and academic training.

Background: Translating commercial contracts between Arabic and English is complicated by profound asymmetries between Civil Law jurisdictions (Egypt, Saudi Arabia) and Common Law jurisdictions (UK, US). Katharina Reiss's ( ) functional text-type theory and Susan Šarčević's (1997, 2021) legalfunctional equivalence model individually fail to provide a comprehensive procedural framework for addressing these asymmetries. Objective: To develop and empirically validate the Dual-Equivalence Procedural (DEP) Model, a replicable three-stage framework integrating communicative and legal equivalence for professional and academic use in Arabic-English contract translation. Methods: A qualitative-comparative analysis was applied to a mini-corpus of 36 contractual provisions drawn from 12 authentic commercial agreements (6 Arabic, 6 English). Each provision was rendered in two versionscommunicative-only and DEP-informed -and evaluated using the Dual-Equivalence Scoring Framework (DESF), a five-criterion ordinal instrument (0-2 per criterion; maximum 10). Inter-rater reliability was assessed via Cohen's Kappa (κ) with bootstrap confidence intervals (1,000 iterations). Results: DEP-based translations achieved a mean DESF score of 8.18/10 versus 5.42/10 for communicative-only translations. The difference was statistically significant (t(35) = 14.73, SD = 1.12, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 2.46). Inter-rater reliability was κ = 0.87 (almost perfect agreement). Conclusions: Communicative equivalence alone is insufficient for legally binding Arabic-English contract translation. The DEP Model and DESF instrument together provide an empirically validated procedural and evaluative framework for professional practice and academic training.

Статтю присвячено перекладознавству, яке дедалі частіше спирається на матеріали, які від першої особи відтворюють фаховий досвід дослідників перекладу і перекладачів, коментарі, щоденники, звіти про перекладацький процес, мемуари та оповіді, щоб зрозуміти, як перекладачі ухвалюють рішення в різних умовах. Зазначено, що дослідники не окреслюють власну методологію або описують її за допомогою понять, значення яких перетинаються («рефлексія», «щоденник», «автоетнографія»), що ускладнює оцінювання матеріалів дослідження та порівняння їх результатів. У відповідь на це у статті зроблено спробу сформувати типологію перекладацької автоетнографії. Розглянуто дискусію про відмінності між аналітичною та евокативною автоетнографією й пояснено, чому такий поділ є незадовільним для перекладознавчих досліджень. Перекладачі діють не від першої особи, а через тексти інших, змінюють ролі в межах одного проєкту (перекладач, редактор, перемовник, активіст) і працюють у відповідних інституційних та технологічних контекстах. Оскільки суб’єктивність перекладача є опосередкованою та постає у співпраці з іншими, перекладацька автоетнографія поєднує аналіз і особисту оповідь у межах власної аргументації. Зазначено, що в основу типології перекладацьких автоетнографій покладено розрізнення за жанрами, тобто за формою та метою, між аналітичними кейсовими дослідженнями, рефлексивною документацією процесу та перекладацькими щоденниками, наративними описами професійного й етичного досвіду, політично залученими активістськими спостереженнями та методологічними обґрунтуваннями. Щоб зафіксувати випадки, що їх жанрова типологізація не може охопити, запроваджено два додаткові комплексні критерії. Перший, тілесність і перформативність. Другий, формат співпраці (індивідуальний, діалогічний, командний, спільнотний). Основний і два додаткові критерії синтезовано в практичну типологію перекладацької автоетнографії, що допомагає визначати те, що вважається даними (чернетки, журнали, електронне листування, відгуки клієнтів), як ці дані аналізуються та як опрацьовуються етичні ризики. Запропонована модель сприяє більшій методологічній прозорості перекладацьких досліджень, послідовнішому їх рецензуванню та ефективнішому накопиченню знань у перекладознавстві.

This study aimed to explore the challenges and solutions of translating English scientific metaphors into Arabic from senior translation students' perspective. To achieve this objective, the descriptive survey method was adopted. A questionnaire, consisting of 18 statements focusing on possible challenges and solutions, was developed for collecting data from a sample of 91 senior translation students randomly selected from the largest public university (Sana'a) and two private universities in Sana'a, Yemen. Data was analyzed with the help of the SPSS software. Major findings revealed that

Attacks against United Nations premises and personnel during the hostilities in Gaza since 2023 have renewed attention to the legal protection afforded to the Organization in situations of armed conflict. These incidents raise the question whether damage to United Nations facilities constitutes merely a breach of the Organization’s inviolability or whether it must also be characterised as a violation of international humanitarian law. This article examines the relationship between the regime governing the inviolability of the United Nations and the rules of international humanitarian law, with particular attention to the 2025 advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice on the obligations of Israel in relation to the presence and activities of the United Nations and other international organizations in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. The article argues that, although United Nations premises and personnel may benefit from protection under both regimes, the rules governing the inviolability of international organizations remain conceptually and legally autonomous from international humanitarian law and continue to apply during armed conflict. Rather than being displaced through the application of lex specialis principle, the two regimes operate concurrently and may provide cumulative protection. The article further contends that the reasoning of the Court in the advisory opinion supports this interpretation by grounding the privileges and immunities of the United Nations in the functional necessities of the Organization under the Charter and the 1946 Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations. Consequently, attacks against United Nations premises may engage separate and cumulative sources of international responsibility under both regimes without merging them into a single legal framework.

Este resumo estendido constitui parte integrante das atividades de conclusão do curso de Licenciatura em Letras (Português/Inglês) pelo Centro Universitário Cidade Verde (UniCV – Maringá).


Resumo. O objetivo geral da investigação centra-se em analisar como a integração entre a linguística aplicada e o ensino instrumental de línguas mitiga a exclusão social gerada pelo tecnicismo jurídico inadequado. busca-se identificar barreiras linguísticas e analisar a relevância do legal english no direito comparado, especificamente na dicotomia entre common law e civil law. a hipótese central sustenta que o ensino pautado em gêneros discursivos viabiliza um discurso transparente e eficaz, permitindo que a linguagem cumpra sua função social democrática sem abdicar do rigor terminológico indispensável à área. a metodologia ancora-se em uma revisão bibliográfica qualitativa de caráter exploratório-descritivo. o corpus documental foi selecionado com base em critérios de relevância epistemológica em bases de dados como Google acadêmico e o portal da capes. utilizou-se o método dedutivo para analisar obras seminais publicadas entre 1987 e 2017, garantindo a robustez e a reprodutibilidade da investigação sobre a transposição didática no direito.

Palavras-chave: hermenêutica forense. letramento crítico. gêneros discursivos. direito comparado. mediação pedagógica.

Ці методичні рекомендації допоможуть краще зрозуміти і навчитися долати виклики перекладу особистих документів з української мови на англійську, з якими стикаються під час надання таких послуг. Переклад – це суспільно значима діяльність, яка вимагає співпраці перекладача з колегами-професіоналами, правниками, клієнтами та місцевими акторами і зацікавленими сторонами. Спираючись на професійний досвід співпраці з благодійними організаціями, які допомагають українцям за кордоном, методичні рекомендації детально описують форматування перекладених документів, необхідне для того, щоб зробити їх доступними та зрозумілими. Запропоновані рішення не є єдино правильними, а радше правлять за приклад та носять рекомендаційний характер.
Розглядаючи виклики, з якими стикається перекладач під час роботи з особистими документами, увагу зосереджено на таких проблемах, як нерозбірливий почерк і печатки, низька якість зображень оригіналів документів, друкарські помилки, абревіатури, скорочення і терміни, тонкощі форматування, часові обмеження і конфіденційність. Нарешті, ці методичні рекомендації розглядають інструменти та стратегії, які допомагають перекладачам працювати послідовно та ефективно: використання машинних перекладачів, корпусних онлайнових словників, шаблонів для перекладу документів, інструкцій та інших допоміжних засобів для надання надійних, своєчасних, якісних і корисних перекладацьких послуг.

Here I get to the heart of “The Spirit of Laws”. Because of the grandeur of
the book’s task, I will elucidate it in order. Parts 1 and 2 of “The Spirit of Laws” are the core of the book. Law expresses the relationship between things. That is, God, man, animals, and things each have a law. That animals have laws means that animals also have instinctive group rules and things have laws that are in accordance with the rules and natural laws of things. This is all organically connected, meaning organic world connections. This is what Buddhism calls ‘Engi’ and it is the worldview advocated by my philosophy and the Biocosmological Association. The fact that it is discussed from the perspective of cosmology is what makes it different from conventional Montesquieu studies.
Then, three political systems are proposed. They are republican govern
ment, monarchy and tyranny. This is only an ideal type. Contradictions appear in various places. But that is Montesquieu’s true intention. In other words, he supports the absolute monarchy of Louis XIV. However, he is not satisfied with it and while criticizing it, he aims for a republican government with the aristocracy. This is the embrace of contradiction. Kitarō Nishida, a leading figure in Japanese philosophy, called this ‘self-identity of absolute contradiction’.
Montesquieu’s goal was to achieve national peace and stability, not
revolution. In this light, we can understand the contradiction. In the following, we will consider the people’s education, virtue, punishment, equality, Chinese tyranny, defense, and courts that support the political system. Its conclusion poses a court of nothingness, invisible to the people, which does not cause fear among the people.

The article seeks to explore lexico-semantic and grammatic features of the English business letters and outline the translation techniques of conveying them into Ukrainian. A business letter is analyzed as a textual unity of content and expression of the content which is characterized by intentionality; semantic, grammatic and communicative cohesion and coherence; conventionality of form; recurrence of set expressions (clichés); absence of emotive and expressive vocabulary; specific syntactic arrangement. It has been estimated that translation difficulties of transferring English business letters into Ukrainian stem from semantic and syntactic differences, the polysemy of English lexis, terms including, divergent manifestations of formal style, embedded in the respective languages, and lack of direct equivalents in the terminological systems of both languages. Thematic groups of English business terminology have been outlined, with prevalent translation devices of delivering them into Ukrainian having been specified. It has been emphasized that delivery of abbreviations and shortened forms of terminology accepted in the English industrial domain cannot be conceived of without the resort to relevant, specially compiled dictionaries and / or glossaries. The following semantic groups of standardized clichés and their illocutionary load have been brought into focus: enquiries, follow-up clichés, notifications, offers, orders, complaints and excuses. Their examples in the form of English-Ukrainian counterparts have been juxtaposed and analyzed in terms of the translation techniques employed. The material of study clearly showcased that the dominant translation methods leveraged were actualized on the referential and componential levels of equivalence. It is noted that the adequacy of the translated into Ukrainian business letters and agreeing English syntactical patterns with their Ukrainian matches can only be attained if certain lexico-semantic and grammatic transformations are used. These include substitution, addition, calquing, semantic modulation, compensation, word order change and partitioning.

Стаття присвячена проблемі теоретичної та практичної контекстуалізації синтаксичних стратегій перекладу Е. Честермана в українську транслятологічну традицію. Результати нашого дослідження демонструють, що, незважаючи на деякі ієрархічні невідповідності та термінологічні суперечності, розроблена вченим класифікація загалом органічно вплітається в канву вітчизняного наукового доробку і наразі становить найповніший поділ граматичних прийомів перекладу. В оригінальній класифікації налічувалося десять синтаксичних стратегій перекладу: буквальний переклад, запозичення й калькування, транспозиція, зміна мовного рівня одиниці, зміна структури словосполучення, зміна структури клаузи, зміна структури речення, зміна засобів когезії тексту, зміна мовного рівня способу вираження та зміна риторичної фігури. Наш критичний аналіз показав, що з метою теоретичного вдосконалення запропонованої класифікації рекомендується всі прийоми перекладу (саме цей термін є найуживанішим у вітчизняній транслятології для позначення стратегій перекладу Е. Честермана) поділити на конвергентні, які спираються на структурне або формальне зближення одиниць оригіналу і перекладу, та дивергентні, які передбачають розходження між одиницями оригіналу та перекладу. Конвергентні прийоми пропонується поділяти на структурноконвергентні (буквальний переклад та калькування) та формальноконвергентні (запозичення). Дивергентні прийоми перекладу доцільно класифікувати на граматичні, семантичні та прагматичні. До граматичних прийомів, розглянутих у нашій статті, відносимо дев'ять: зміну мовного рівня одиниці, зміну мовного рівня способу вираження, зміну частини мови / морфологічну зміну, зміну граматичної категорії / морфологічну заміну, зміну порядку слів, зміну структури клаузи, зміни порядку клауз, зміну засобів граматичної когезії тексту та зміну риторичної фігури. Ключові слова: стратегія перекладу, синтаксична стратегія перекладу, типи синтаксичних стратегій перекладу, прийом перекладу, граматичний прийом перекладу, типи граматичних прийомів перекладу.
The present article focuses on the issue of the theoretical and practical contextualization of Chesterman’s syntactic translation strategies into the Ukrainian academic tradition. The results of my research reveal that, despite a certain level of hierarchic mismatch and terminological contradiction, the classification designed by Chesterman blends well into
the fabric of Ukrainian academic advances, currently becoming the most complete division of grammatical translation techniques. The original classification featured ten syntactic translation strategies: literal translation, loan and calque, transposition, unit shift, phrase structure change, clause structure change, sentence structure change, cohesion change, level shift, and scheme change. As critical analysis shows, in order to theoretically refine the proposed classification, it is recommended to divide all the translation techniques (it is this term that proves, among Ukrainian academia, the most common denomination of what Chesterman refers to as translation strategies) into convergent ones, based on the structural or formal convergence of the source and target items, and divergent ones, involving the divergence between the source and target items. It is proposed to categorize the convergent techniques into structurally convergent (literal translation and calque) and formally convergent (borrowing). As regards the divergent techniques, they are to be classified into grammatical, semantic, and pragmatic ones. There are nine techniques identified as grammatical in the present article: unit shift, level shift, part-of-speech / morphological change, grammatical category replacement / morphological replacement, word order change, clause structure change, clause order change, grammatical cohesion
change, and scheme change.

This study introduces Applied Legal Linguistics (ALL) as a praxis-oriented framework that integrates linguistic theory, corpus-based analysis, and legal discourse studies to address the pedagogical, translational, and communicative challenges of legal language use in multilingual and cross-systemic legal contexts. Within this framework, the inquiry investigates the challenges encountered by Arab law students in the English section of the Faculty of Law as they translate legal texts between structurally and culturally divergent legal systems. Anchored in the framework of SDG-4, which advocates for the provision of quality education, this research specifically explores the influences of gender and academic level on the students' translation competencies. A sample of 139 students, stratified by gender (Male Legal English Section Students (MLESSs), Female Legal English Section Students (FLESSs)), and academic level (2nd-year Legal English Section Students (2nd LESSs), and 4th-year Legal English Section Students (4th LESSs)), participated in the study. The participants translated a legal text, and their outputs were compared to a reference translation produced by two expert legal translators. Utilizing a multidimensional error analysis model assessing lexical, syntactic, spelling, punctuation, and stylistic features, this corpus-driven analysis evaluated various dimensions of the students' translations. A qualitative examination was conducted to identify error distributions and to assess the degree to which gender and academic level influence the translational outcomes. The findings indicate that 2nd-year students made more frequent lexical, grammatical, and punctuation errors than their 4th-year counterparts, while male students exhibited higher error rates overall than female students, particularly in lexical and grammatical categories. The investigation recommends structured workshops and targeted training, especially for male and early-stage students. It contributes to legal translation research by addressing the overlooked influence of gender and academic level, and by revealing how language proficiency and legalese complexity interact within the context of Arab legal education.

When we teach or research or practice that knowledge we call “Japanese Law” we are entering a field that is largely one of our own creation. “Japanese Law” exists in our minds and in our writings, but it maps very imperfectly the worlds of jurisprudence and legal practice, as they exist in Japan.1 “Japanese Law” is not a neutral label; it comes with built-in inferences, drawn from our own locale and from those of colleagues with whom we share the “field”. In effect, the images and reference points that we “fix” as emblematic of our country of study are “haunted” or shadowed by the concepts and images of other, European concepts and institutions. Once we become aware of the shadows, we can no longer matter-of-factly experience the setting for our study. My guess is that most of us have had turning points or moments when our view of Japan and “Japanese Law” changed quite dramatically. At that moment, we became aware that we have been seeing “Japanese Law” through the prism of a partic...

Law is permissive in nature. It allows the people to perform some of the acts in the society. The law empowers and gives freedom individuals to perform certain acts or avoids certain acts depending on their will or freedom. Law is prohibitive in nature. It prescribes don'ts to human beings. It gives limitation upon acts and omission. It prohibits people from doing certain actions or from abstaining from certain omissions. Law is directive in nature. Also, the law gives directions and guidelines when a certain person wants to perform a certain thing in the society. The law provides guidelines of which people must follow them while performing certain deeds or when discharging certain duties or functions in the community. Law is punitive in nature. Moreover, the law of the country has the nature of providing the sanctions against the persons who have violated certain don'ts and directives. Law regulates social relations by regulating the social behaviour of human beings, to provide an equilibrium or balancing between competing interests or rights of individual persons within a given society or community in which they live; or between one community and another. Functions and purpose of law have been changing with time and place. They depend on the nature of the state. However, at present in a welfare and democratic state, there are several important functions of law. These are: - To prescribe the values and standards in the society.  To recognise and protect rights and freedoms of people.  To resolve or settle disputes.

КОГНІТИВНО-ПРАГМАТИЧНІ ТА МУЛЬТИМОДАЛЬНІ ВИМІРИ ДИСКУРСУ: матеріали Всеукраїнської науково-практичної інтернет-конференції, присвяченої пам'яті доктора філологічних наук, професора Тамари Олександрівни Бровченко Одеса: Одеський національний університет І.І. Мечникова, 4 березня 2026 р. Одеса Видавець Букаєв Вадим Вікторович 2026 УДК 811.11/.13'42:316.77]:81(477)(092)Бро(06)

Who Actually Needs Translation Services in 2026? explores the growing importance of professional translation in a globalized business environment where communication across languages is essential for safety, compliance, and growth. The document explains why relying solely on automated tools such as machine translation can create serious risks for organizations dealing with legal, financial, technical, or medical information. While technology has improved language accessibility, the report emphasizes that human expertise remains critical when accuracy, cultural nuance, and legal precision are required.

The guide identifies key industries where professional translation services are essential, including law firms, financial institutions, educational organizations, manufacturing companies, technology businesses, and healthcare providers. Each of these sectors handles sensitive information that must be translated correctly to avoid costly errors, legal disputes, compliance violations, or safety risks. For example, legal documents require precise terminology to remain enforceable across jurisdictions, financial reports must meet strict regulatory standards, and medical instructions must be clearly understood to protect patient health.

In addition to industry use cases, the document highlights common translation needs across organizations such as regulatory documentation, marketing content, internal corporate communications, technical manuals, and customer-facing materials. It explains how accurate translation helps companies maintain brand consistency, ensure regulatory compliance, and build trust with international audiences. Businesses that invest in high-quality translation are more likely to expand successfully into global markets and avoid the costly consequences of mistranslation.

The guide also discusses the value of combining human expertise with modern translation technology. Professional translation services use structured quality assurance processes, subject-matter experts, and cultural localization strategies to ensure that translated content remains accurate and relevant in different markets. By preserving meaning, context, and cultural nuance, professional translators help organizations communicate effectively across borders.

Overall, the document demonstrates that translation services in 2026 are not just a linguistic task but a strategic business necessity. Any organization operating internationally—or serving multilingual audiences—must prioritize accurate, culturally aware translation to protect its reputation, meet regulatory requirements, and deliver clear communication in every market it serves.

When characterizing the normativity of legal definitions, researchers sometimes use such terms as understanding or meaning, which allow one to theorize legal definitions as a type of directive related to thinking. The present work grows out of the need to critically analyse the proposals of researchers in which such terms occur. The main purpose of the article is to develop two approaches to legal definitions, generalizing proposals encountered in the papers on legal theory. Each approach provides a different answer to the question of what behaviour is prescribed by the definition. In the first, it is assumed that legal definitions are directives of directly perceivable actions. In the second -that they command the addressee to think in a certain way. These considerations lead to the conclusion that the assumption of the normativity of legal text, insofar as it concerns legal definitions, is difficult to maintain if we agree at the same time that the behaviour prescribed by the definitions should be identifiable. The paper's methodology is based on the research conducted within the Poznań-Szczecin School of Legal Theory, including works by Zygmunt Ziembiński, Maciej Zieliński, and Maciej Dybowski.