Livelihood Security

Increasing variability in rainfall and temperature has become a major challenge for agricultural communities, particularly in regions where farming depends heavily on monsoon rainfall. In India, smallholder farmers constitute a major share of the agrarian economy, and their dependence on monsoon-based cultivation exposes them significantly to climate stress. This study examines the effects of climate variability on agricultural productivity, income stability, and livelihood security among smallholder farmers residing near Ahmedabad, Gujarat. The research adopts a mixed-method case study approach combining quantitative and qualitative data. Primary data were collected from 120 farmers across four agro-climatic talukas-Sanand, Bavla, Viramgam, and Dholka-using structured questionnaires and interviews. Secondary climate data on rainfall, temperature, and extreme weather events from 2014 to June 2025 were analyzed. The results show intensifying climate fluctuations characterized by delayed monsoon onset, concentrated rainfall events, extended dry spells, and increasing heatwave frequency. These climatic disruptions reduced yields of cotton, cumin, bajra, castor, and wheat while increasing input costs, pest infestation, and dependence on irrigation. Consequently, household income declined, outstanding debt rose, and nearly half of the farming households reported supplemental migration. Adaptation strategies included crop diversification, drought-resistant seeds, micro-irrigation, crop insurance, and non-farm work; however, the coping mechanisms remain insufficient for long-term resilience. The study concludes that climate variability exacerbates agricultural vulnerability, emphasizing the need for climate-smart practices, localized institutional support, reliable crop insurance, and accessible weather advisory services to safeguard the livelihoods of smallholder farmers.

Education in Emergencies (EiE) has emerged as a critical field to ensure the continuity of education during crises. In Colombia, repeated natural disasters, armed conflict, and public health emergencies have threatened the right to education, prompting the development of the Comprehensive School Risk Management policy, known by its Spanish acronym GIRE (Gestión Integral del Riesgo Escolar). This article provides a structured analysis of the origin, evolution, and challenges of GIRE and EiE in the Colombian education sector. Drawing on a policy cycle framework and an ethnographic approach, we review key legal and policy milestones from the late 1980s to the present, alongside qualitative insights from stakeholders. Results indicate that Colombian education policy has progressively shifted from a reactive disaster-response orientation to a more integrated risk management approach that recognizes education as a pillar of protection during emergencies. However, significant challenges persist: gaps between policy and implementation, limited resources and training at the school level, and insufficient intersectoral coordination hinder the full realization of EiE goals. The discussion highlights the need to strengthen institutional capacities and resilience in schools, aligning national efforts with international standards (e.g., INEE Minimum Standards) while tailoring strategies to local contexts. The article concludes with recommendations for policy and practice, including dedicated funding, capacity-building for educators, documentation of best practices, and stronger governance mechanisms to embed risk management and emergency preparedness in Colombia's education system. These measures are vital to uphold the right to education even amid emergencies and build an educational system that is resilient, equitable, and responsive to Colombia's diverse risks and needs. this article synthesizes and expands findings from research developed within the Specialization in Pedagogy and Teaching at the Fundación Universitaria del Área Andina (Colombia), originally conducted by Hernando Macías Álvarez, Andrés Felipe Aristizábal Hincapié, and Dayibeth Mosquera Rivas (2025).

This study was undertaken in Kidea village of Kigoma Rural District, Tanzania. The study intended to assess the status of peasant migration to Kidea village. Household questionnaire, focus group discussion and key informant interviews were employed in data collection. The study shows that all the interviewed respondents emigrated from 30 villages in and outside the district. Of these villages, only 4 contributed more migrants to the study area than the 26 villages all together. Generally, migration to Kidea Village shows a declining trend. Land shortage, loss of soil productivity, high food prices and limited income opportunities in migrants’ places of origin were reported as drivers for peasant migration. To reduce the rate of migration the study recommends provision of farming inputs in migrants’ source areas to maximise food production; controlling fertility rate and establishment of income generating activities. Finally, the study calls for thorough study in the four villages th...

Cereal Banks, though important, have failed to become sustainable. The banks have always been requiring close monitoring support or subsidies from an outside agency, but collapse when outside monitoring and subsidies end. Such trend has brought worries and made Cereal Banks labeled negative. Failing to become self-sustaining has called for an inventory to analyze the Cereal Bank benefits realized by the communities. In 2012, a cross section study was done involving 80 households in Makoja Village, Dodoma Region. Makoja Village communities are poor, living in arid land and are chronically food insecure. Surprisingly, significant proportion (89 %) of the respondents acknowledges the Community Cereal Bank as the source of seeds to next season. Poor Makoja Community views the Cereal Bank as the Seed Bank to ensure availability of seeds hence food availability. Cereal banks are essentially not failed attempts but rather require continuing support to ensure production and food security of engaged community. The international development community should explore various outputs realised as benefits by engaged communties before terming them unsuccessful. However, there is a need to increase a pace to promote Community Seed Production Systems to assure improved crop production and household food security.

This paper aims to evaluate the knowledge, practices, and production levels of rice farmers and identify their significant factors using statistical models. The study involved 84 rice farmers in Barangay Barobaybay, Calbiga, Samar, Philippines, with the aid of complete enumeration sampling. Primary and cross-sectional data were gathered using the researchers' developed questionnaire based on the current literature. Using a quantitative research design, the data were analysed using descriptive statistical measures, correlation analysis, and ordinal regression modelling. Results suggested that, on average, rice farmers' perceived level of knowledge (M=4.37; SD=0.39), practices (M=4.32; SD=0.41), and production (M=4.29; SD=0.39) in farming are considered very high. This implies that rice farmers display strong knowledge, effective farming practices, and efficient production processes. The correlation analysis revealed that farmers' knowledge, practices, and production levels are highly correlated with each other. This indicates that farmers' knowledge is vital to their farming practices by adopting technologies that positively influence their productivity. Moreover, the ordinal regression revealed that tenure status (being a tenant farmer) is a significant (at a 10% level) predictor of farmers' knowledge, practices, and production activities. Notably, to support rice farmers who lease land, the government should promote policies that provide more secure land tenure, encouraging long-term investment in farming. Moreover, the study suggests that future interventions and support programs should promote innovative and advanced techniques to ensure the continued growth and success of rice farming in the region.

With expenditure of USD8 billion per annum, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Schemes (MGNREGS) of India is one of the largest Social Safety Nets (SSN) programs in the developing world. The program aims to improve rural livelihood in India by reducing overall vulnerability and distress of rural poor. The nature and degree of implementation of the program vary across the Indian states (provinces); Andhra Pradesh is one of the states which has received/spent largest national level MGNREGS funding. Using panel data sets out of ICRISAT targeted four villages (and 227 households) in Andhra Pradesh state for the last 5 years (2007-11), we quantified the impact on the program on credit and debt structure the rural households, using quasi- experimental design such as difference-in-difference method of impact assessment. Extending the regression model, we evaluated factors determinant of the level of debt and its structure by using 5 years of panel household data by the ...

For the last two decades, land and land-related problems are more complicated ever before. Especially the proliferation of large-scale rural land investments and the vulnerability of the local communities in land abundant developing countries instigated researchers, human right activists, and international and regional organizations to proposed governance guidelines, principles, and codes of conduct for large-scale land investments. To identify policy flaws on the protection of local community rights under the governance process of large-scale rural land investment in Amhara National Regional State Ethiopia the commonalities of those international and regional accepted governance guiding lines and principles are taken as a point of reference to examine the land governance policies of the region through the approach of document analysis. The result shows all legislation with regard to the governance of large-scale rural land investment is flawed throughout the land policy reform processes and identified five ways in which the de jure land-related rights of the local communities are compromised and exacerbated the vulnerability of their livelihoods.

For the last two decades, land and land-related problems are more complicated ever before. Especially the proliferation of large-scale rural land investments and the vulnerability of the local communities in land abundant developing countries instigated researchers, human right activists, and international and regional organizations to proposed governance guidelines, principles, and codes of conduct for large-scale land investments. To identify policy flaws on the protection of local community rights under the governance process of large-scale rural land investment in Amhara National Regional State Ethiopia the commonalities of those international and regional accepted governance guiding lines and principles are taken as a point of reference to examine the land governance policies of the region through the approach of document analysis. The result shows all legislation with regard to the governance of large-scale rural land investment is flawed throughout the land policy reform proc...

The dryland vegetation and particularly the Acacia-Commiphora woodlands support the livelihoods of approximately 52 million rural households in the Horn of Africa. Aromatic resins are valuable non-wood forest products (NWFPs) derived from Boswellia and Commiphora species in the drylands of this region. The study seeks to answer the following main questions: “What are the ecological and livelihood roles of resin producing species, and the role that people have in either degrading or restoring these ecosystems?” “Who are the participants in frankincense and myrrh production, processing, and trade, and how do these people interact?” “What is the current and potential future economic impact of frankincense and myrrh production and trade at the household level?” “What are the barriers to enhanced economic outcomes?” The study involves the use of PRISMA method—a systematic methodology to identify, select and analyze the recent literature on aromatic resins in relation to such factors as s...

Rural women play a crucial role in societal and economic development, yet their lives are shaped by various socio-personal, socioeconomic , communicational and psychological factors. Sociopersonally, they exhibit resilience, adaptability and strong familial ties, often juggling multiple responsibilities within households and agricultural labor. Socioeconomically , they face challenges such as financial dependence, wage disparities, and restricted access to education, land and credit, limiting their economic independence and entrepreneurial opportunities. In terms of communication, many rural women rely on oral traditions and community networks for information, with limited access to digital technology, though mobile and radio communication have begun bridging this gap. Psychologically, they demonstrate endurance and emotional strength despite economic and social hardships, yet issues such as stress, anxiety and lack of mental health awareness persist. Understanding these traits is essential for developing policies and interventions that enhance rural women's empowerment, improve their socioeconomic status, and promote gender equality in rural areas.

The main aim of this research article is to evaluate the forage management practices of ruminant raisers in the Municipality of Jaro, Leyte, Philippines. The study also predicted the statistically significant factors of forage management practices and described their implications. A validated developed questionnaire was used to gather primary data for selected ruminant raisers in the Municipality of Jaro. Descriptive measures were calculated to provide the necessary information to describe the collected data and summarize it in statistical tables. Additionally, regression models were constructed to determine the significant predictors of forage management practices. The results depicted that, on average, ruminant raisers are not implementing forage management practices regarding planting, care and management, harvesting, and feeding procedures. This means that ruminant raisers are not implementing agricultural technologies that might improve their productivity and profitability. The regression analysis revealed that male ruminant raisers are implementing forage management as opposed to female raisers. In addition, the regression model showed that ruminant raisers are observing forage management if they have more number of ruminant animals. Moreover, it is depicted that ruminant raisers are more likely to practice forage management to increase their income. Hence, to encourage the ruminant farmers to implement forage management, the local government must conduct a seminar and educational training to introduce to them the new existing technologies and their advantages in the production process.

The case study outlined in the paper focuses on addressing rural development challenges in typical specific locations of Bangladesh, namely Gangachara and Kaonia in the Rangpur district, situated northern part of the country. It emphasis the pivotal role of roads in transforming the socio-economic pattern of these rural communities. A range of sophisticated methodologies, including Venn diagrams involving peoples concern, then participatory mapping, focus groups, key informant interviews, and seasonality/seasonal calendars, are done. These procedures collectively collaborate the umbrella of Participatory Reflection and Action (PRA) techniques. This intentional selection of diverse techniques aims to comprehensively engage the local community in the planning and implementation stages of rural road developments. The importance is on understanding the intricate nuances of transportation needs within these communities. One of the vital parts of the study is the active involvement of a wide array of stakeholders. This includes not only local government representatives but also non-governmental organizations, potential donors, and the community members themselves.In short it can be said cocerns from people of all walks of life of that locality have participation in this regard. The rationale behind this multi-stakeholder engagement is to ensure a holistic and inclusive decision-making process. The community is provided with a platform to actively participate in evaluating and interpreting the collected data. The study places a significant emphasis on collaboration in decision-making. This involves not only sharing the findings with the community but also fostering a dialogue that allows community members to contribute their insights and perspectives. This collaborative approach is instrumental in crafting a comprehensive road development plan that not only addresses the immediate needs of the community but aligns with their long-term objectives and aspirations. The study emphasises the transformative power of involving the community in rural development projects. By actively engaging community members in decision-making processes, the resulting road development plan is not just a product of external decisions but is shaped by the actual needs and desires of the people living in these rural areas. This approach goes beyond mere infrastructure development; it facilitates the creation of sustainable solutions that resonate with the community's unique context. A key takeaway from the study is the importance of finding a delicate balance between social objectives and practical considerations. The road development plan is not formulated in isolation but takes into account the feasibility of implementation and the availability of resources. This practical approach ensures that the proposed solutions are not only desirable but also achievable within the given constraints. The study's findings serve as a valuable guide for policymakers, development organizations, and practitioners involved in rural development projects. The standardized methodology presented in the case study, coupled with tangible outcomes, offers a roadmap for implementing similar participatory approaches in rural road construction projects. This guidance is not just theoretical but is grounded in the successful application of these methodologies in real-world scenarios. In summary, the case study provides a detailed and comprehensive exploration of how Participatory Reflection and Action techniques, coupled with extensive stakeholder engagement, can lead to transformative and sustainable rural development. It goes beyond the theoretical framework, offering practical insights that can be replicated and adapted in diverse contexts, thereby contributing to more inclusive and community-driven development initiatives.

The positive deviant households in a drough-tprone village have developed such household assets, namely, i) fishpond, ii) home garden, iii) large livestock, and iv) stocked paddy, and flexibly utilized each of them in different ways in accordance with different situation, normal year or drought year, rather than to prepare each of them as a specific countermeasure merely corresponded to drought risk.

Farming Systems Research (FSR) plays a crucial role in enhancing agricultural productivity, sustainability, and livelihoods in Nepal. This article provides a comprehensive review of FSR in Nepal, focusing on concepts, design, and methodology for optimizing farming systems. Integrated farming systems have emerged as a key strategy for small and marginal farmers to improve livelihood security and meet household needs for nutrition and income. By integrating various components such as crops, livestock, and agroforestry, farmers can enhance resource use efficiency, diversify income sources, and improve resilience to climate change impacts. FSR in Nepal combines scientific research, community engagement, and local knowledge to enhance agricultural sustainability and improve livelihoods for small-scale farmers. Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) plays a crucial role in developing a national research agenda and allocating resources to address the diverse technological needs of farmers. By integrating diverse perspectives, utilizing innovative technologies, and engaging stakeholders, FSR addresses agricultural system complexities and contributes to food security, environmental sustainability, and rural development.

This thesis research would not have been possible without the generous conceptual and technical contribution of my supervisor, Jean Christophe CASTELLA. I would like to thank also to my thesis advisor, Elisabeth RASSE-MERCAT for her contribution on data analyze reporting, her patience and encouragement for me. I am also grateful to fieldwork funding institution, Centre for International Forestry Research, on Landscape Mosaics Project in Lao PDR. As a part of the team, Jean-Laurent Pfund, Manuel Boissière, Kate Langford and Imam Basuki, they give me a great experience to know them and to participate in the project. Especially for Kate, thank for the support and also for English language correction. I wish to appreciate for all collaborating institutions: IRD (l’Institut de recherche pour

Sustainability of organic farming depends on the organic inputs. As such, other than a few fertilizers and plant protection measures, there have been scanty resources available to farmers for continuing organic farming. Some farmers in India have evolved traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) based location specific practices to sustain their agroecosystems and continue organic farming. In this paper, an attempt has been made to explore TEK-led adaptations in bio-mulching to grow ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) as a crop and to test empirically the best practices including identifying the best leaves and local bio-mulching materials applied by farmers. The role of TEK-led adaptive practices for controlling moisture loss, temperature regulation, reduced disease incidence, quality yield and economic aspects of ginger production are examined. The study was conducted in nine randomly selected villages of Champawat district, Uttrakhand (Western Himalaya). Data was collected using open ended questions in association with participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools. Results indicated that farmers have developed major TEK led adaptive practices for organic ginger production after seeding in the field, namely using the leaves of oak (Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus.), chir pine needles (Pinus roxburghii Sarg.), local mixed grasses (e.g., Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov, [Cymbopogon distans (Nees ex Steud.) W. Watson], [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br. syn. Setaria glauca (L.) P. Beauv], [Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult]. shrubs [Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob.] syn. Eupatorium odoratum L.) and animal wastage. This last consists of mixed oak, bhimal (Grewia optiva J.R. Drumm ex Burret), kharik (Celtis australis L.), timala (Ficus auriculata Lour.syn. Ficus roxburghii Stud.) leaves, grasses, paddy and finger millet straw and cow dung and urine. Women were observed to be using more of these TEK led adaptive practices than men. Empirical field studies carried out on TEK led adaptive practices under rain-fed agro ecosystems of farmers revealed significant results including longer rhizome length (up to 6.50 cm), higher number of rhizomes per plant (35.30), higher ginger yield (211.50 q/ha), higher B:C (benefit to cost) ratio (1:2.18) and lower percentage of disease (bacterial wilt; soft rot and leaf spot) incidence (17.5%) in oak leaf mulch. Soil moisture conservation (44.75%) and optimum soil temperature (24.80 0 C) were recorded as significantly better under the oak leaves for using bio-mulching as compared to all other TEK led bio-mulching practices for organic ginger production. The oak leaves used as bio-mulch in organic ginger increased yield by 43% and net returns by 61% as compared to no mulching (control). It is concluded that, under temperate climate and rain-fed agro ecosystems, TEK led adaptive practices by farmers in growing ginger are economically feasible, energy efficient and ecologically sustainable, through the addition of soil organic carbon. However, there is need for scientific and institutional promotion in participatory modes for such practices, with a provision for integrating these practices with science and policy on climate adaptation.

This paper is part of ICRISAT Economics Discussion paper series. This series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about a wide array of issues in the area of agriculture for development. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. Any comments and suggestions are more than welcome and should be addressed to the author whose contact details can be found at the bottom of the cover page. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and its affiliated organizations. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (lCRISAT) is a non-profit, non-political organization that conducts agricultural research for development in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa with a wide array of partners throughout the world. Covering 6.5 million square kilometers of land in 55 countries, the semi-arid tropics have over 2 billion people, of who 644 million are the poorest of the poor. ICRISAT innovations help the dryland poor move from poverty to prosperity by harnessing markets while managing risksa strategy called Inclusive Market-Oriented development (lMOD). ICRISAT is headquartered in Patancheru near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, with two regional hubs and five country offices in sub-Saharan Africa. It is a member of the CGIAR Consortium. www.icrisat.org CGIAR is a global agriculture research partnership for a food secure future. Its science is carried out by 15 research Centers who are members of the CGIAR Consortium in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. www.cgiar.org This work has been undertaken as part of the Assessment of Economic Impacts of MGNREGA in Selected Two Villages of Karnataka State using Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) ICRISAT -Socioeconomics Discussion Paper Series 2

Since the mid-1970s, modern farming has endangered the indigenous production and food system among the Macha Oromo of western Ethiopia. Modern cultivation sought to secure food to the growing population and market that negatively affected the food sovereignty of the Macha farmers. The effects of agricultural changes on food sovereignty in this intensively cultivated region have received astonishingly little attention from either historians or other social scientists. This study attempts to examine how the modern farming practices endangered the farming and food system in Wallagga from 1975 to 2015. It illustrates the effects of land use changes and modern farm inputs on indigenous cultivation and subsequently food system. The study has employed a historical research method in which evidences on land use, farming practices, trade, investment since the mid-1970s. The study argues that the change in land use and excessive and continuous use of inorganic fertilizers since 1970s has seriously affected both the environment and food system. It reveals that these changes usurped the right of the Macha Oromo to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods. Thus, the return to ecologically and culturally sound agricultural system would realize food sovereignty and ease this historical injustice.

Tribal people are considered as the original inhabitants or Adivasis. In Kerala, they
constitute nearly 1.5 percent of the total population of the state. There are 37 Scheduled
tribal communities living in the state with greater concentration in Wayanad, Idukki,
Palakkad, Kasaragod and Kannur districts. The livelihood status of the Kerala Tribes in
general, are much higher than those of other Indian states. Yet, quite many of them suffer
from several socio-economic and health issues in Kerala too. Even though both, the state
and central governments have formulated several development programs and policies for
the welfare of the tribal communities since Independence, there is still a vast gap between
the tribal and the general population, though the extent of this gap is relatively low in Kerala
as against the situation in the rest of India in varying degrees. Kerala has been in the
forefront in taking progressive initiatives in several domains including the uplift of the tribal
people. Aralam Tribal Rehabilitation Program is one of the largest such programmes in
India to emerge as a model programme for the landless tribal people. The present paper is
one of the outcomes of an ethnographic study, carried out as part of the Doctoral research
carried out in Aralam Tribal Rehabilitation area, located in Kannur district, in the state of
Kerala, India, with the aim to examine the major issues and challenges in the process of
development efforts towards the tribal communities in the context of the Aralam Tribal
Rehabilitation Programme.

Farming Systems Research (FSR) plays a crucial role in enhancing agricultural productivity, sustainability, and livelihoods in Nepal. This article provides a comprehensive review of FSR in Nepal, focusing on concepts, design, and methodology for optimizing farming systems. Integrated farming systems have emerged as a key strategy for small and marginal farmers to improve livelihood security and meet household needs for nutrition and income. By integrating various components such as crops, livestock, and agroforestry, farmers can enhance resource use efficiency, diversify income sources, and improve resilience to climate change impacts. FSR in Nepal combines scientific research, community engagement, and local knowledge to enhance agricultural sustainability and improve livelihoods for small-scale farmers. Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) plays a crucial role in developing a national research agenda and allocating resources to address the diverse technological needs of farmers. By integrating diverse perspectives, utilizing innovative technologies, and engaging stakeholders, FSR addresses agricultural system complexities and contributes to food security, environmental sustainability, and rural development.

and Nepal. With poverty reduction and sustainable forest management both firmly in view, the central aim of Forest Connect is to better link Small and Medium Forest Enterprises (SMFEs) to: t each other (by facilitating the formation of associations); t emerging markets (by facilitating market analysis and access to information); t business development and financial service providers (by facilitating training and access to finance); t national forest programmes (by facilitating engagement with policy makers). Within Ethiopia, FARM Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia were identified by IIED as ideal partners with whom to develop these broader project aims. An initial scoping visit identified a critical preliminary step: the need to gather accurate information about the SMFE sector as a whole. Such research would ensure that future efforts had a firm foundation in fact. The resulting study was undertaken with the assistance of the Participatory Natural Resources Management Unit (PNRMU) of FARM Africa and the Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management Programme (BERSMP), established in partnership with SOS Sahel Ethiopia and the Bale Forest Enterprise. The PNRMU Manager, Tsegaye Tadesse, and the BERSMP Field Coordinator, Ben Irwin, both offered a great deal of guidance and supervision as well as valuable inputs into the research process itself. Duncan Macqueen at IIED commented extensively on drafts. Over 15 government and non-governmental organisations as well as 38 enterprise owners were consulted during the course of the study. All generously gave their time freely and openly and made information available whenever possible. Special thanks are due to Dr. Girma Amente, General Manager of the Oromia State Forest Enterprises Supervising Agency (OSFESA), and Belay Asfaw, Manager of the Bale Forest Enterprise.

In this study, an attempt was made to study the socioeconomic status of the workers engaged in organic farming. The various healthy practices under organic farming like compost production, use of bio-pesticides, crop rotations, etc. increases soil health and quality of the food. The organic practices including Homa bhasm, Agnihotra and Biodynamic farming besides promoting healthy agriculture are expected to have seeming effects on behavioral aspects of the farm workers. However, apparently systemic information on social attributes of organic farm is still limited. The socioeconomic aspects of an organic farm CSKHPKV, Palampur were documented through structured questionnaires. The data was analyzed by the use of indices, ratios and percentages. The various aspects as family structure and size, age distribution, caste structure, literacy level, occupational pattern, economic status behavioral aspects were evaluated. The skilled workers had nuclear family while unskilled workers had joint families, larger portion of workers in the organic farm belonged to younger age group (31 years), literacy index was high (4.32) in case of skilled workers while low (3.23) for unskilled workers. It was observed that in case of skilled workers majority of individuals were positively affected through increased farming knowledge, better wage rate, improved ethical and spiritual thinking while in case of unskilled workers no obvious positive reaction was observed for farming knowledge and wage rate though there was perceptible change in punctuality and spiritual thinking.

Vulnerability has been defined as the characteristics of a person or a group of persons i.e. in terms of their capacity to cope with, anticipate, resist and recover from the impacts of natural or man-made hazards or any external event. Vulnerability is also defined as the inability to withstand the effects of hostile environment. Hostile environment refers to livelihood security in this research. Concept of vulnerability is described within five categories of livelihood security, which are economic, social, education, food and health. The parameters for assessing the vulnerability of slums for different location are within the five categories of livelihood security that are economic security, social security, education security, food security and health security.