Prevelance Studies

Abstract
Given the growing poultry sector in Sudan and the critical role that chicken meat plays as a vector for Salmonella, an investigation was conducted to assess the presence of Salmonella in poultry meat in Khartoum state. The objective of this research is to provide data on isolation and enumeration of Salmonella in chicken meat of slaughterhouses, markets, and street grills in Khartoum State/Sudan. A total of 230 samples were collected from abattoirs, markets, and ready-to-eat grilled chicken from vendors in Omdurman, Khartoum, and Khartoum North localities to generate data on Salmonella contamination. The isolation rate of Salmonella in chicken was 22%, 25%, 16% in abattoirs, markets, and street grills, respectively, with a maximum count reaching 4.3±0.22 log10 cfu/g in a fresh chicken sample obtained from an abattoir in Omdurman locality. A 606-bp DNA fragment was amplified from all S. enterica isolates, and the fliC primers amplified a 366-bp fragment; however, the flagellin gene of S. typhi was not detected. The findings of this study show that the isolation rate of Salmonella from ready-to-eat grilled chickens in Khartoum State/Sudan, is alarmingly high. Detection of Salmonella in ready-to-eat food samples renders them unfit for human consumption. The findings of this study emphasize the need for investigation of the chicken’s supply chain in Khartoum State, especially at the critical points after release from broiler plants. Besides, a thorough investigation into chicken cross-contamination pathways at retail store storage to implement appropriate food safety risk management measures to mitigate food risks.

Although a large part of the global domestic dog population is free-ranging and free-breeding, knowledge of genetic diversity in these free-breeding dogs (FBDs) and their ancestry relations to pure-breed dogs is limited, and the indigenous status of FBDs in Asia is still uncertain. We analyse genome-wide SNP variability of FBDs across Eurasia, and show that they display weak genetic structure and are genetically distinct from pure-breed dogs rather than constituting an admixture of breeds. Our results suggest that modern European breeds originated locally from European FBDs. East Asian and Arctic breeds show closest affinity to East Asian FBDs, and they both represent the earliest branching lineages in the phylogeny of extant Eurasian dogs. Our biogeographic reconstruction of ancestral distributions indicates a gradual westward expansion of East Asian indigenous dogs to the Middle East and Europe through Central and West Asia, providing evidence for a major expansion that shaped the...

Domestic cat hepadnavirus (DCH) is an infectious disease associated with chronic hepatitis in cats, which suggests a similarity with hepatitis B virus infections in humans. Since its first identification in Australia in 2018, DCH has been reported in several countries with varying prevalence rates, but its presence in Taiwan has yet to be investigated. In this study, we aimed to identify the presence and genetic diversity of DCH infections in Taiwan. Among the 71 samples tested, eight (11.27%) were positive for DCH. Of these positive cases, three cats had elevated levels of alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST), suggesting an association between DCH infection and chronic hepatitis. Four DCH-positive samples were also tested for feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukemia virus (FeLV) coinfection. One sample (25%) was positive for FIV, whereas there was no positive sample for FeLV (0%). In addition, we performed whole genome sequencing on six samples to determine the viral genome sequences. Phylogenetic analyses identified a distinct lineage compared with previously reported sequences. This study highlights the importance of continuous surveillance of DCH and further research to elucidate the pathophysiology and transmission route of DCH.

Although a large part of the global domestic dog population is free-ranging and free-breeding, knowledge of genetic diversity in these free-breeding dogs (FBDs) and their ancestry relations to pure-breed dogs is limited, and the indigenous status of FBDs in Asia is still uncertain. We analyse genome-wide SNP variability of FBDs across Eurasia, and show that they display weak genetic structure and are genetically distinct from pure-breed dogs rather than constituting an admixture of breeds. Our results suggest that modern European breeds originated locally from European FBDs. East Asian and Arctic breeds show closest affinity to East Asian FBDs, and they both represent the earliest branching lineages in the phylogeny of extant Eurasian dogs. Our biogeographic reconstruction of ancestral distributions indicates a gradual westward expansion of East Asian indigenous dogs to the Middle East and Europe through Central and West Asia, providing evidence for a major expansion that shaped the...

Cancer is a major health problem. It is the second leading cause of death in the world, as it killed 8.8 million people in 2015. Cancer has existed throughout human history, but the first written historical record of cancer was found in 1600 BC. Cancer is a group of diseases whose cells are characterized By aggressiveness, which is the random growth and division and the ability of these dividing cells to invade and destroy nearby tissues, or move to distant tissues in a process we call metastasis, and these abilities are the characteristics of a Malignant tumor unlike a Benign tumor, which is characterized by specific growth and the inability to invade, and has no ability On the move, as a benign tumor can develop into a malignant tumor at times, we ate our studies to take the statistics of the diseases deployed in the municipality of Traghin Teaching Hospital from 2010 to 2020 , through the results of the questionnaire research, a number of (43) cases were collected from the residents of this municipality (Traghin), where In terms of the ratio of women to men (39.5% - 60.4%) .
Breast cancer is the most common, then Colon cancer comes in second place, then prostate cancer, then comes uterine cancer, where they shed more light on breast cancer on the subject due to the great importance of the health aspect, whether local or national .

Objective: To evaluate the changes in the number of Langerhans Cells (LC) observed in the epithelium of smokeless tobacco (SLT-induced) lesions. Methods: Microscopic sections from biopsies carried out in the buccal mucosa of twenty patients, who were chronic users of smokeless tobacco (SLT), were utilized. For the control group, twenty non-SLT users of SLT with normal mucosa were selected. The sections were studied with routine coloring and were immunostained for S-100, CD1a, Ki-67 and p63. These data were statistically analyzed by the Student' s t-test to investigate the differences in the expression of immune markers in normal mucosa and in SLT-induced leukoplakia lesions. Results: There was a significant difference in the immunolabeling of all markers between normal mucosa and SLT-induced lesions (p<0.001). The leukoplakia lesions in chronic SLT users demonstrated a significant increase in the number of Langerhans cells and in the absence of epithelial dysplasia. Conclusion: The increase in the number of these cells represents the initial stage of leukoplakia.

Background: The word enuresis is derived from a Greek word (enourein) that means "to void urine." It can occur either during the day or at night (though some restrict the term to bedwetting that occurs at night). Enuresis can be divided into primary and secondary forms. Aim of current study was to find out the prevalence and underlying its risk factors of nocturnal enuresis in age groups 5 to 12 years in the rural areas of the district. Methods: The study was done during the year 2011-12 among 1258 school children residing in rural areas of Ahmadabad district of Gujarat state by the help of health personnel staff with the cooperation of the teaching staff and all the parents of the children. Results: There were 869 males and 389 females. We found the prevalence of nocturnal enuresis in 11.13% of total subjects. Nocturnal enuresis was more common in males than in females, 91/140 in males and 49/140 in female children. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that nocturnal enuresis is a common problem among school children especially with low income, lower age, family history of enuresis and history of urinary tract infection. Enuresis is a pediatric public health problem and efforts at all levels should be made such as preventive, etiological and curative. The ratio of males to females in this study was 1.86 that is comparable to other data of the same study.

Background. Nocturnal enuresis refers to an inability to control urination during sleep. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of nocturnal enuresis and its associated factors in children in the city of Khorramabad.Materials and Methods. In this descriptive-analytic, cross-sectional study, 710 male and female children were divided into two groups with equal numbers. The samples were selected from the schools of Khorramabad using the multistage cluster and stratified random sampling methods based on the diagnostic criteria of DSM-IV. The data was analyzed using the logistic regression.Results. The results showed that 8% of the children had nocturnal enuresis, including 5.2% of primary nocturnal enuresis and 2.8% of secondary nocturnal enuresis. The prevalence of nocturnal enuresis in the boys (10.7%) was higher compared with that in the girls (5.4%) (P=0.009). There were statistically significant relationships between nocturnal enuresis and history of nocturnal enuresis in sib...

The objective of the study was to examine the association between biopsychosocial factors and developmental trajectories of childhood urinary incontinence (UI). We used developmental trajectories (latent classes) of childhood UI from 4-9 years including bedwetting alone, daytime wetting alone, delayed (daytime and nighttime) bladder control, and persistent (day and night) wetting (n = 8751, 4507 boys, 4244 girls). We examined whether biopsychosocial factors (developmental level, gestational age, birth weight, parental UI, temperament, behaviour/emotional problems, stressful events, maternal depression, age at initiation of toilet training, constipation) are associated with the trajectories using multinomial logistic regression (reference category = normative development of bladder control). Maternal history of bedwetting was associated with almost a fourfold increase in odds of persistent wetting [odds ratio and 95% confidence interval: 3.60 (1.75-7.40)]. In general, difficult temperament and behaviour/emotional problems were most strongly associated with combined (day and night) wetting, e.g. children with behavioural difficulties had increased odds of delayed (daytime and nighttime) bladder control [1.80 (1.59-2.03)]. Maternal postnatal depression was associated with persistent (day and night) wetting [2.09 (1.48-2.95)] and daytime wetting alone [2.38 (1.46-3.88)]. Developmental delay, stressful events, and later initiation of toilet training were not associated with bedwetting alone, but were associated with the other UI trajectories. Constipation was only associated with delayed bladder control. We find evidence that different trajectories of childhood UI are differentially associated with biopsychosocial factors. Increased understanding of factors associated with different trajectories of childhood UI could help clinicians to identify children at risk of persistent incontinence.

Nocturnal enuresis habitually called bedwetting is said to be a highly prevalent health condition in children and adolescents but the impact of enuresis is often taken too lightly. Around the world today 15 % of children are affected. Enuresis is socially stigmatizing and can affect quality of life. Parents and families are equally frequently stressed about the condition. The knowledge of nocturnal enuresis and its severity will help to promote effective management. The aim of the study was to determine the severity of nocturnal enuresis among children and adolescents in Ota, Ogun state. The objectives are to assess frequency, history and parental perception about the condition. A crossectional community based study was conducted among 141 children in Ado-Odo, Ota local government area within the age range of 6-18 years. Self-administered two-section questionnaire was designed to assess demographic data, frequency of bedwetting, behavioral pattern, emotional stressor, parent's history, and previous attempt at treatment among others. The collected data was analysed using data tabulation (frequency distributions & percent distributions). The presence of enuresis among the children was 29 %. Enuresis was more in females (53.66 %) compared to males (46.34 %). There was a decrease in prevalence of enuresis with increasing age group (6-9 years was 52.4 %, 10-13 years was 33.3 % and 14-17 years was 14.3 %). History of nocturnal enuresis among parents and siblings was found to be 75.61 % and 57.10 % respectively. A higher percentage (90.24 %) of parents punishes their children for bedwetting. None of the mothers of the enuretic children had complication during pregnancy or at childbirth. Enuresis is a highly common childhood complaint. Genetics could be a leading factor for the occurrence nocturnal enuresis, but complication during pregnancy and childbirth is not. There is need to create awareness and educate parents and families about enuresis and the treatment options available.

Although a large part of the global domestic dog population is free-ranging and free-breeding, knowledge of genetic diversity in these free-breeding dogs (FBDs) and their ancestry relations to pure-breed dogs is limited, and the indigenous status of FBDs in Asia is still uncertain. We analyse genome-wide SNP variability of FBDs across Eurasia, and show that they display weak genetic structure and are genetically distinct from pure-breed dogs rather than constituting an admixture of breeds. Our results suggest that modern European breeds originated locally from European FBDs. East Asian and Arctic breeds show closest affinity to East Asian FBDs, and they both represent the earliest branching lineages in the phylogeny of extant Eurasian dogs. Our biogeographic reconstruction of ancestral distributions indicates a gradual westward expansion of East Asian indigenous dogs to the Middle East and Europe through Central and West Asia, providing evidence for a major expansion that shaped the patterns of genetic differentiation in modern dogs. This expansion was probably secondary and could have led to the replacement of earlier resident populations in Western Eurasia. This could explain why earlier studies based on modern DNA suggest East Asia as the region of dog origin, while ancient DNA and archaeological data point to Western Eurasia.

Objective: To evaluate the changes in the number of Langerhans Cells (LC) observed in the epithelium of smokeless tobacco (SLT-induced) lesions. Methods: Microscopic sections from biopsies carried out in the buccal mucosa of twenty patients, who were chronic users of smokeless tobacco (SLT), were utilized. For the control group, twenty non-SLT users of SLT with normal mucosa were selected. The sections were studied with routine coloring and were immunostained for S-100, CD1a, Ki-67 and p63. These data were statistically analyzed by the Student' s t-test to investigate the differences in the expression of immune markers in normal mucosa and in SLT-induced leukoplakia lesions. Results: There was a significant difference in the immunolabeling of all markers between normal mucosa and SLT-induced lesions (p<0.001). The leukoplakia lesions in chronic SLT users demonstrated a significant increase in the number of Langerhans cells and in the absence of epithelial dysplasia. Conclusion: The increase in the number of these cells represents the initial stage of leukoplakia.

To evaluate the natural background of prostate cancer in Iran a large population-based study of screening using total prostate-specific antigen (tPSA) and per cent free PSA (fPSA) as the initial test was performed. Materials and methods: For 9 years (1996 to 2004) in Tehran, Iran, 3670 Iranian men older than 40 years were mass checked by PSA-based screening. They were invited to have a digital rectal examination (DRE), serum PSA assay and transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS)-guided sextant prostate biopsy to see if the DRE was clinically suspicious of malignancy, the serum PSA was ‡2.1 ng/ml or free-to-total PSA (f/tPSA) ratio £15%. Results: In 433 (11.8%) of screened males, tPSA levels exceeded the cutoff value of ‡2.1 ng/ml and 128 prostate cancers were diagnosed [positive predictive value (PPV) 29.6%] corresponding to an overall detection rate of 3.5%. Altogether 138 cancers were detected (detection rate 3.8%); none were stage M 1 , three were stage N + and 4 stage T 3. A threshold tPSA of ‡2.1 ng/ml would have detected 128 cancers in 447 biopsied men (PPV 29%). There were 109 of 138 (79%) men with cancer who had an f/tPSA of £15%, while 152 of 305 (49.8%) with benign biopsies had a f/tPSA of £15%, which corresponds to a PPV of 30.8%. Conclusion: PSA-based screening with low PSA cutoff values increase the detection rate of clinically significant, organ confined and potentially curable prostate cancer. Further studies are warranted in order to determine the incidence and prevalence of prostate cancer in different ethnic groups.

Infertility has become a growing problem among reproductive aged women in both developing and developed countries. Recent statistics indicate a significant number of married couples suffering from infertility and visiting infertility centers has increased in Bangladesh. Therefore, this study aims to identify the factors associated with infertility in Bangladeshi women. This is a retrospective study and data were collected from 450 reproductive aged women purposively using a structured questionnaire from an infertility center in Rajshahi City, Bangladesh. Univariate, bivariate and multivariate analyses were used to reach the objectives. The results revealed that most respondents (58.2%) were overweight and obese by measuring Body Mass Index (BMI). Age, age at first marriage, BMI, duration of contraceptive use, husband’s diabetes status, and husband’s drug addiction were found significantly associated with infertility. Infertility cases were found to be higher among women aged ≥30 yea...

Over the past few decades, there has been a dramatic increase in the frequency of antibiotic resistant pathogens and strains. 1 The discovery of penicillin in 1940 lowered the occurrence of bacterial infections until Staphylococcus(S.) aureus began to produce beta (β)lactamase enzyme which destroys the β-lactam ring in penicillin. This increased resistance to penicillin led to the emergence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and later vancomycin resistant S. aureus (VRSA) strains. 2 Since then, endemics of MRSA and now vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA) have been occurring occasionally in hospitals and nursing homes worldwide. 3 S. aureus is a gram-positive, non-spore-forming, nonmotile, aerobic/facultative anaerobic bacteria found everywhere in the environment; water, food, domestic animals, human mucosal surfaces, and hospitals. 4 A number of virulence factors, like vanA gene product, heat stable enterotoxins, toxic shock syndrome (TSS) toxins, epidermolysis toxins, pyrogenic exotoxins, and cytolytic toxins, are responsible for pathogenicity and resistance in S. aureus. 5 Similarly, certain cell wall-associated factors, like clumping factors, fibronectin-binding proteins, willebrand factor fibres, are also involved in attachment and colonisation of S. aureus to extracellular matrix proteins, fibrins, platelets, fibrinogen, fibronectin and endothelial cells. 6 The endemics of hospital-acquired S. aureus infections are most frequent in Asian countries with an estimated proportion of 28% in Hong Kong and Indonesia compared to more than 70% in South Korea. In contrast, the rate of community-acquired MRSA strains in Asia varies considerably, with an estimated range of <5% to >35% in different countries. 7 In 2013, lower frequency of MRSA (31.5%) was reported compared to a 2016 study (36.1%) in Peshawar, Pakistan. 8,9 It has been found that the lack of standard and even basic health facilities may result in increased rate of different health-related problems, especially those caused by pathogens. Similarly, many disease-associated risk factors, like low socioeconomic status, poor hygiene and selfmedication,also exist in underdeveloped countries like Pakistan which makes people more vulnerable to antibiotic-resistant microorganisms , such as MRSA. 10 It is understood that S. aureus is responsible for a number of asymptomatic infections in humans, ranging from body surface to the deep soft tissue infections, such as meningitis, mastitis and TSS. 11 As S. aureus is a multi-drug resistant bacterium which causes a variety of nonpredictable infections in human, it is, therefore, a common practice among researchers to assess S. aureus frequency, prevalence and incidence from time to time. The current study was planned to assess and compare the

Background: The population of older women is rapidly increasing in every country in the world, including Iran. Given the effect of Sexual Function (SF) and sexual health on older women’s health, the present study was conducted to determine Sexual Dysfunction (SD) and the factors predicting it in Iranian older women in Karaj. Methods: The present cross-sectional study was conducted on 550 eligible older women selected by stratified cluster sampling from those visiting health centers in Karaj between October 2019 and February 2020. Data were collected using self-report questionnaires including demographic questionnaire, the hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS), and the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI). To take account of the effect of sampling design on the analyses, survey command in Stata-14 was used. Results: A total of 94.5% of the participating women had SD, 74.4% reported desire disorder, 79.8% arousal disorder, 57.6% lubrication disorder, 65.3% orgasm disorder, and 7...

Objective: In this study, the prevalence of enuresis nocturna (EN) was investigated among primary school children living in Diyarbakır. Material and methods: Five primary schools in the center of Diyarbakir and a village primary school were selected randomly. Four thousand and five hundred self-administered questionnaires were distributed to parents; 4300 were returned, and 4203 of these questionnaires were included in this study. Results: Of the children participating in the study, 52.2% of them were boys and 47.8% of them were girls. The mean age of the children was 8.66±1.61 (6-15) years, and the mean number of siblings was 4.03±2.06 (0-13). The prevalence of nocturnal enuresis was determined to be 25.9% (1087) among 4203 children, and it was more common in boys than in girls (27.8 and 23.7%, respectively). The rate of a positive family history in the nocturnal enuresis, and nonenuretic groups were 64.8, and 35.2%, respectively. The average number of siblings in the enuretic, and nonenuretic groups were 4.49±2.65, and 3.87±2.57, respectively Socioeconomic level of the families of enuretic children was worse than that of nonenuretic children. Enuretic children had episodes of bedwetting (92.3%) during night hours or both day and night (8.7 %).The number of bed wetting incidents per week was 4.1±2.2. A minority (5.7%) of the families believed that the condition resolved without any treatment. Conclusion: Family history, a low socioeconomic level and an increased number of children were factors that increased the frequency of enuresis nocturna in our region.

Enuresis is a health problem frequently encountered in childhood. This study was carried out in two socio-demographically different districts of the province of Istanbul, for the purpose of determining the relationship between the prevalence of primary nocturnal enuresis and certain demographic characteristics. The study design is a cross-sectional carried out on 420 children (5 to 13 yr old) through random sampling. The research was conducted at two health centers in two different districts in the province of Istanbul. Data was collected with a questionnaire created by the researchers. Diagnosis of enuresis considered nocturnal voiding twice a week for at least three consecutive months. Enuresis was a complaint expressed by 16.2% of the cases in the study group; 8.3% reported intermittent bedwetting. The data collected in the two districts pointed to a significant difference in terms of the frequency of enuresis in favor of the district where socio-demographic features were inferio...

Background Nocturnal enuresis (NE) is the involuntary urination that occurs while asleep after an age when bladder control at night is expected. It has a global incidence of 1.4%-28% among 6-12 years old children. The aim of this study is to show the prevalence, risk factors, types of provided treatment of enuresis among studied children in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Methods A cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out among Saudi children, 3-12 years of age, from different cities in Saudi Arabia, during the period from 20 October to 20 November 2019. Data was collected by using a pre-designed questionnaire that was distributed online and included questions designed to fulfill the study objectives. Results This study reported that 31.2% of Saudi children of the chosen ages are suffered from enuresis, the majority occurred at day and night by 55.1% while 43.9% occurred only at night. Participants described types of provided treatment as follows: behavioral modification was...

Background Nocturnal enuresis (NE) is the involuntary urination that occurs while asleep after an age when bladder control at night is expected. It has a global incidence of 1.4%-28% among 6-12 years old children. The aim of this study is to show the prevalence, risk factors, types of provided treatment of enuresis among studied children in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Methods A cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out among Saudi children, 3-12 years of age, from different cities in Saudi Arabia, during the period from 20 October to 20 November 2019. Data was collected by using a pre-designed questionnaire that was distributed online and included questions designed to fulfill the study objectives. Results This study reported that 31.2% of Saudi children of the chosen ages are suffered from enuresis, the majority occurred at day and night by 55.1% while 43.9% occurred only at night. Participants described types of provided treatment as follows: behavioral modification was...

Nocturnal enuresis habitually called bedwetting is said to be a highly prevalent health condition in children and adolescents but the impact of enuresis is often taken too lightly. Around the world today 15 % of children are affected. Enuresis is socially stigmatizing and can affect quality of life. Parents and families are equally frequently stressed about the condition. The knowledge of nocturnal enuresis and its severity will help to promote effective management. The aim of the study was to determine the severity of nocturnal enuresis among children and adolescents in Ota, Ogun state. The objectives are to assess frequency, history and parental perception about the condition. A crossectional community based study was conducted among 141 children in Ado-Odo, Ota local government area within the age range of 6-18 years. Self-administered two-section questionnaire was designed to assess demographic data, frequency of bedwetting, behavioral pattern, emotional stressor, parent's history, and previous attempt at treatment among others. The collected data was analysed using data tabulation (frequency distributions & percent distributions). The presence of enuresis among the children was 29 %. Enuresis was more in females (53.66 %) compared to males (46.34 %). There was a decrease in prevalence of enuresis with increasing age group (6-9 years was 52.4 %, 10-13 years was 33.3 % and 14-17 years was 14.3 %). History of nocturnal enuresis among parents and siblings was found to be 75.61 % and 57.10 % respectively. A higher percentage (90.24 %) of parents punishes their children for bedwetting. None of the mothers of the enuretic children had complication during pregnancy or at childbirth. Enuresis is a highly common childhood complaint. Genetics could be a leading factor for the occurrence nocturnal enuresis, but complication during pregnancy and childbirth is not. There is need to create awareness and educate parents and families about enuresis and the treatment options available.

Introduction: Nocturnal enuresis is an important developmental problem for school age children and it can cause emotional and social problems for children and their families. This study was aimed to determine the prevalence of enuresis in school children aged 6-8 years in Rafsanjan, Iran, during 2014. Material and Methods : In this cross-sectional study, 1080 school children aged 6-8 were selected using a random cluster sampling method. Questionnaires were distributed among the children to be answered by their parents. Results: The overall prevalence of nocturnal enuresis was10.6% (CI 95%: 8.76 – 12.44); 91.3 % of them had primary and 8.7% had secondary nocturnal enuresis. Prevalence in girls and boys were 8.44% and 12.3% respectively. Factors such as parental education, family income, and age were significantly associated with nocturnal enuresis. Conclusions: The results showed that the prevalence of nocturnal enuresis in our study is average. Since a minority of families seek medi...

Introduction: Nocturnal enuresis is an important developmental problem for school age children and it can cause emotional and social problems for children and their families. This study was aimed to determine the prevalence of enuresis in school children aged 6-8 years in Rafsanjan, Iran, during 2014. Material and Methods : In this cross-sectional study, 1080 school children aged 6-8 were selected using a random cluster sampling method. Questionnaires were distributed among the children to be answered by their parents. Results: The overall prevalence of nocturnal enuresis was10.6% (CI 95%: 8.76 – 12.44); 91.3 % of them had primary and 8.7% had secondary nocturnal enuresis. Prevalence in girls and boys were 8.44% and 12.3% respectively. Factors such as parental education, family income, and age were significantly associated with nocturnal enuresis. Conclusions: The results showed that the prevalence of nocturnal enuresis in our study is average. Since a minority of families seek medi...

Enuresis is a health problem frequently encountered in childhood. This study was carried out in two socio-demographically different districts of the province of Istanbul, for the purpose of determining the relationship between the prevalence of primary nocturnal enuresis and certain demographic characteristics. The study design is a cross-sectional carried out on 420 children (5 to 13 yr old) through random sampling. The research was conducted at two health centers in two different districts in the province of Istanbul. Data was collected with a questionnaire created by the researchers. Diagnosis of enuresis considered nocturnal voiding twice a week for at least three consecutive months. Enuresis was a complaint expressed by 16.2% of the cases in the study group; 8.3% reported intermittent bedwetting. The data collected in the two districts pointed to a significant difference in terms of the frequency of enuresis in favor of the district where socio-demographic features were inferio...

Objective: Enuresis is a health problem frequently encountered in childhood. This study was carried out in two socio-demographically different districts of the province of Istanbul, for the purpose of determining the relationship between the prevalence of primary nocturnal enuresis and certain demographic characteristics. Methods: The study design is a cross-sectional carried out on 420 children (5 to 13 yr old) through random sampling. The research was conducted at two health centers in two different districts in the province of Istanbul. Data was collected with a questionnaire created by the researchers. Diagnosis of enuresis considered nocturnal voiding twice a week for at least three consecutive months. Findings: Enuresis was a complaint expressed by 16.2% of the cases in the study group; 8.3% reported intermittent bedwetting. The data collected in the two districts pointed to a significant difference in terms of the frequency of enuresis in favor of the district where socio-demographic features were inferior (P<0.005). When family histories were explored in cases of children with enuresis, it was found that the mothers of 76.2% had the problem of enuresis while 14.9% had enuretic fathers. Thus statistically, the presence of enuresis in the family history was seen to have had a markedly significant impact on the occurrence of enuresis in the child (P<0.001). Conclusion: It was concluded that familial predisposition to the condition constituted a more significant risk factor for enuresis compared to socio-demographic or economic characteristics.

Introduction: Enuresis is the second most common disorder among children after allergic disorders. According to the results of previous studies, different estimates of enuresis prevalence and its related factors have been reported. Combining the results of these studies is valuable. This study aims to estimate the prevalence of enuresis and its related factors among Iranian children.Materials and Methods:Relevant articles published during 2000 to 15 May 2015 were identified by a comprehensive search within national and international databanks. Having applied inclusion/exclusion criteria and quality assessment, eligible papers were selected. In addition, references of the articles were reviewed to enhance the search strategy. Standard error of the prevalence in each study was calculated using binomial distribution. Random effects model was used to combine the results. All data analyses were performed using STATA SE V.11 software. Results: We entered 15 eligible articles into the syst...

Over the past few decades, there has been a dramatic increase in the frequency of antibiotic resistant pathogens and strains. 1 The discovery of penicillin in 1940 lowered the occurrence of bacterial infections until Staphylococcus(S.) aureus began to produce beta (β)lactamase enzyme which destroys the β-lactam ring in penicillin. This increased resistance to penicillin led to the emergence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and later vancomycin resistant S. aureus (VRSA) strains. 2 Since then, endemics of MRSA and now vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA) have been occurring occasionally in hospitals and nursing homes worldwide. 3 S. aureus is a gram-positive, non-spore-forming, nonmotile, aerobic/facultative anaerobic bacteria found everywhere in the environment; water, food, domestic animals, human mucosal surfaces, and hospitals. 4 A number of virulence factors, like vanA gene product, heat stable enterotoxins, toxic shock syndrome (TSS) toxins, epidermolysis toxins, pyrogenic exotoxins, and cytolytic toxins, are responsible for pathogenicity and resistance in S. aureus. 5 Similarly, certain cell wall-associated factors, like clumping factors, fibronectin-binding proteins, willebrand factor fibres, are also involved in attachment and colonisation of S. aureus to extracellular matrix proteins, fibrins, platelets, fibrinogen, fibronectin and endothelial cells. 6 The endemics of hospital-acquired S. aureus infections are most frequent in Asian countries with an estimated proportion of 28% in Hong Kong and Indonesia compared to more than 70% in South Korea. In contrast, the rate of community-acquired MRSA strains in Asia varies considerably, with an estimated range of <5% to >35% in different countries. 7 In 2013, lower frequency of MRSA (31.5%) was reported compared to a 2016 study (36.1%) in Peshawar, Pakistan. 8,9 It has been found that the lack of standard and even basic health facilities may result in increased rate of different health-related problems, especially those caused by pathogens. Similarly, many disease-associated risk factors, like low socioeconomic status, poor hygiene and selfmedication,also exist in underdeveloped countries like Pakistan which makes people more vulnerable to antibiotic-resistant microorganisms , such as MRSA. 10 It is understood that S. aureus is responsible for a number of asymptomatic infections in humans, ranging from body surface to the deep soft tissue infections, such as meningitis, mastitis and TSS. 11 As S. aureus is a multi-drug resistant bacterium which causes a variety of nonpredictable infections in human, it is, therefore, a common practice among researchers to assess S. aureus frequency, prevalence and incidence from time to time. The current study was planned to assess and compare the

There is a continuing debate on the accurate prevalence estimates of overactive bladder (OAB) among different ethnicities and regions. The aims of our study were to determine the prevalence of OAB, associated risk factors, and the impact of OAB on the quality of life and sexual function of Iranian women. A total of 8748 women between 15 and 55 years of age enrolled in this cross-sectional study. The definition of the 2002 International Continence Society (ICS) was applied to assess the prevalence of OAB. All participants underwent a detailed history and physical examination that included an evaluation of quality of life, coping strategies and treatmentseeking behavior, laboratory tests, urinalysis and current or previous therapy. The degree of bother was quantified using s visual analog scale (VAS). The overall prevalence of OAB was found to be 18.2% and increased with age from 10.9% in adults aged 15-29 years to 26.2% in those aged [50 years old (test for trend, P = 0.001). A negative impact of OAB on sexual function was reported by 72.3% of the women. Frequency was the most commonly reported symptom (67% of women), followed by urgency (54%). Subjects with OAB had a higher prevalence of anxiety (28.2 vs. 8.8%; P = 0.001), depression (38.2 vs. 18.2%; P = 0.02) and tiredness (16.4 vs. 2.7%; P = 0.001), and they reported significant impairment in carrying out household chores (P = 0.01), physical activities (P = 0.01) and work-related activities (P = 0.01) as well as negative effects on education (P = 0.02), sleep (P = 0.001), relationships (P = 0.001) and annual income (P = 0.01). The prevalence of OAB in Iranian women is higher than that reported in many previous studies in developed and developing countries. Our results reveal that OAB is a highly prevalent condition among Iranian women and that is has a serious impact on quality of life and sexual function.

Nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting during the night at sleep) is one of the most disturbing and frustrating childhood problems for both parents as well as children (Bulut, 2019). As many as 5 million American children and families are suffering from it (Warzak, 1993). Nocturnal enuresis is one of the most common disorders of childhood (Schulpen, 1997). If it is not treated, it has a significant effect on children's social and emotional health. Even when they reach adulthood, enuresis can still have a serious effect on their careers, social life and personal relationships (Graff, 1992). Furthermore, enuresis causes a financial drain in both the families and the society as a whole. Continuously having to wash, dry, and buy washing soaps and diapers can cause a significant financial burden on families. Additionally, enuresis can limit the family's mobility and vacation planning. Therefore, it seems that it has multiple consequences to be considered.

Objective: To assess and compare the frequency of antibiotic-resistant staphylococcus aureus strains.
Methods: A retrospective study was conducted at the privately-owned Welfare Medical Laboratory, Peshawar,
Pakistan, and comprised record related to the period between 07th February 2017 and 23rd March 2018 of patients
referred for pus-testing from Khyber Teaching Hospital, Lady Reading Hospital and the Hayatabad Medical
Complex. Pus samples were obtained from various parts of body with cotton swabs. The samples were cultured and
the isolated staphylococcus aureus strains were analysed against selected antibiotics. The frequency of the isolated
strains was tested and compared using Prism 7 software.
Results: Of the 6780 samples, staphylococcus aureus was found in 4315(63.64%). Wild-type staphylococcus aureus
strains were 2133(31.46%), followed by 825(12.16%) methicillin-resistant, 792(11.68%) vancomycin intermediate,
and 565(8.33%) vancomycin-resistant staphylococcus aureus strains. The isolated strains were significant
(p<0.0001) for operated wounds, and non-significant (p=0.8915) for diabetic foot cases.
Conclusion: The frequency of antibiotic-resistant staphylococcu saureus strains was high

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence, incidence, and risk factors of adult urolithiasis in Iran. A total of 8,413 persons aged over 14 years enrolled in this cross-sectional study. They were questioned on the occurrence of urinary stones during their lifetime (prevalence) and on acute urolithiasis in 2005 (incidence) by 62 general practitioners. The subjects were randomly identiWed from 30 counties of Iran. Data on risk factors for urolithiasis including age, race, education, body mass index, hypertension, and current use of medication were also obtained by self-administered questionnaire. Of the 7,649 participants who provided information, 5.7% (436) [95% conWdence interval (CI) 4.2-5.4], reported urinary stones. The prevalence increased from 0.9% in adults aged 15-29 years to 8.2% in those aged 60-69 years (test for trend, P = 0.001). Urolithiasis was slightly more frequent and persisted in males (6.1%) than females (5.3%) giving a male-to-female ratio of 1.15:1 [odds ratio (OR) 1.03; 95% CI 0.64-1.36; P = 0.814]. The annual incidence of urolith-iasis in 2005 was 145.1. The average cumulative recurrence rate was 16% after 1 year, 32% after 5 years, and 53% after 10 years. Urinary stones were more in number among men and women who lived in south central and southwest counties , with odds increasing from west to east and from north to south. A positive association was found between urolith-iasis and obesity (OR 1.74; 95% CI 1.21-2.31; P = 0.04), diuretic use (OR 1.62; 95% CI 1.18-2.70; P = 0.03), hyper-tension (OR 1.88; 95% CI 1.26-2.18; P = 0.04), unemployment (OR 2.10; 95% CI 1.43-2.14; P = 0.04), consumption of tea (OR 1.64; 95% CI 1.32-2.62; P = 0.03), consumption of cola (OR 1.49; 95% CI 1.23-2.19; P = 0.02), and meat consumption (OR 1.38; 95% CI 1.29-2.21; P = 0.02). This study provides a quantitative estimate of the prevalence , incidence, and main risk factors for adult urolithiasis in the Iranian population. Further studies are warranted in order to determine the incidence and prevalence of urolith-iasis in diVerent ethnic groups.

To explore the prevalence of and risk factors for erectile dysfunction (ED) in Iran. A total of 2674 men aged 20-70 y old were interviewed by 42 general practitioners and answered a self-administered questionnaire. The subjects were randomly identified from 28 counties of Iran. ED was defined as difficulties in achieving an erection before sexual intercourse and maintaining it. Data on medical history, toxic habits, and current use of medications were also obtained. Of the men interviewed, 18.8% (460) reported ED. Impotence was found to be significantly associated with age and was less associated with geographical location. The prevalence increased with age, from 6% in men 20-39 y to 47% in those 460 y (tested for trend Po0.001). A history of diabetes (odds ratio (OR) 3.72, 95% confidence interval (CI), 2.51-5.71), hypertension (OR 1.69, 95% CI, 1.31-2.40), peripheral vascular disorders (OR 2.44, 95% CI, 1.65-3.74), hypercholesterolemia (OR 1.71, 95% CI, 1.11-2.65), and coronary artery disease (OR 1.61, 95% CI, 1.21-2.85) were significantly associated with ED. In comparison with never smokers, the OR of ED was 2.41 (95% CI, 1.52-3.30) for current smokers and 2.15 (95% CI, 1.38-3.1) for exsmokers and increased with duration of the habit. Drug intake, called tranquilizers and antidepressants, correlated strongly (OR 3.71, 95% CI, 2.51-6.76 and OR 2.80, 95% CI, 1.47-4.32, respectively). This study provides a quantitative estimate of the prevalence and main risk factors for ED in Iranian men.

Nocturnal enuresis habitually called bedwetting is said to be a highly prevalent health condition in children and adolescents but the impact of enuresis is often taken too lightly. Around the world today 15 % of children are affected. Enuresis is socially stigmatizing and can affect quality of life. Parents and families are equally frequently stressed about the condition. The knowledge of nocturnal enuresis and its severity will help to promote effective management. The aim of the study was to determine the severity of nocturnal enuresis among children and adolescents in Ota, Ogun state. The objectives are to assess frequency, history and parental perception about the condition. A crossectional community based study was conducted among 141 children in Ado-Odo, Ota local government area within the age range of 6-18 years. Self-administered two-section questionnaire was designed to assess demographic data, frequency of bedwetting, behavioral pattern, emotional stressor, parent's history, and previous attempt at treatment among others. The collected data was analysed using data tabulation (frequency distributions & percent distributions). The presence of enuresis among the children was 29 %. Enuresis was more in females (53.66 %) compared to males (46.34 %). There was a decrease in prevalence of enuresis with increasing age group (6-9 years was 52.4 %, 10-13 years was 33.3 % and 14-17 years was 14.3 %). History of nocturnal enuresis among parents and siblings was found to be 75.61 % and 57.10 % respectively. A higher percentage (90.24 %) of parents punishes their children for bedwetting. None of the mothers of the enuretic children had complication during pregnancy or at childbirth. Enuresis is a highly common childhood complaint. Genetics could be a leading factor for the occurrence nocturnal enuresis, but complication during pregnancy and childbirth is not. There is need to create awareness and educate parents and families about enuresis and the treatment options available.

We examined whether single nucleotide poly-morphisms (SNPs) in SPP1 gene are associated with risk of calcium oxalate urolithiasis (COU). We genotyped nine known SNPs in SPP1 gene (rs11739060, rs28357094, rs2728127, rs11730582, rs1126772, rs9138, rs2853744, rs4754=p.Asp80Asp, and rs1126616=p.Ala236Ala). Geno-mic DNA from 1,026 individuals (n = 342 patients with first episode COU, and n = 684 healthy unrelated controls) was analyzed for nine SPP1 SNPs using polymerase chain reaction and melting curve analysis by means of a pair of fluorescence resonance energy transfer probes. Serum and urine osteopontin (OPN) levels were also measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. rs9138 AA genotype was protective (OR 0.62, 95 % CI 0.47-0.81; P = 0.004). rs28357094 TT genotype (OR 2.52, 95 % CI 1.74-3.79; P = 0.021), rs2728127 GG genotype (OR 2.64, 95 % CI 1.42-4.81; P = 0.002), and rs2853744 GG genotype (OR 1.68, 95 % CI 1.22-3.87; P = 0.003) were pre-disposing. None of the other examined SPP1 SNPs was associated with COU susceptibility. Subjects with protective and predisposing polymorphisms had increased and decreased serum levels of OPN, respectively. Urinary cal-cium/OPN ratios were higher and lower in subjects with predisposing and protective SNPs of SPP1 gene, respectively. Of 28 constructed haplotypes, 6 demonstrated significant association with COU risk. There was no sex difference in the obtained results. The SPP1 gene poly-morphisms are associated with the COU susceptibility.

Background: The prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) varies greatly between countries. In a community based study, our aims were to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors of adult CKD in Iran. Methods: A total of 17,240 persons of either sex over 14 years old from 30 counties of Iran enrolled in the study. Data on demographic characteristics and medical history were recorded. Participant were asked to provide a midstream sample of urine, and a blood sample was drawn for measuring serum creatinine and glucose. Glomerular filtration rate was estimated (eGFR) using the simplified Modification of Diet in Re-nal Disease (MDRD) study equation. The CKD stages were those provided by the Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative. Results: Of studied participants, 9,812 (60.0%), 5,184 (31.7%), 1,276 (7.8%), 49 (0.3%) and 33 (0.2%) had estimated GFR categories of ≥ 90, 60-89, 30-59, 15-29 and <15 ml/min per 1.73 m 2 , respectively. By CKD stages, 359 (2.2%) had stage 1, 351 (2.1%) had stage 2, 1,276 (7.8%) had stage 3, 49 (0.3%) had stage 4, and 33 (0.2%) had stage 5 CKD. In total, 2,068 (12.6%) (95% confidence interval, 10.2%-14.2%) of the studied population had CKD. Diabetes, glomerulonephritis and hypertension were the most common primary re-nal diseases. Conclusions: This study shows considerable disparities among counties of Iran. Early intervention strategies to reduce the burden of CKD are essential. Further studies are warranted to better determine the causes and prevalence of CKD in different regions and countries.

AIM: To estimate the prevalence of enuresis in school-age children in Iran and determine associated factors.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 7562 children, aged 5-18 years, enrolled in this cross-sectional study. Using a standard questionnaire, data on demographic characteristics, and familial and physical conditions were obtained from the parents by interview. The ICD-10 definition of enuresis was used. In the case of enuretics, a detailed history was taken, and physical and ultrasonographic examinations, urinalysis and urine culture were performed.
RESULTS: The overall prevalence of enuresis was 6.8%. A significant relationship was found between the prevalence of enuresis and age (P=0.001), educational level of parents (P=0.001), number of family members (P=0.028), positive family history of enuresis (P=0.001), parenting methods (P=0.001), and deep sleep (P=0.001). Birth weight (P=0.07), monthly income (P=0.322), employment status of parents (P=0.08), ethnic differences (P=0.09), delayed development (P=0.062), drinking (P=0.072) or urination habit before sleep (P=0.06), and stool incontinence (P=0.062) were not significantly associated with enuresis. Prevalence of urinary tract pathology was 2.9% in enuretics.
CONCLUSIONS: This study provides a quantitative estimate of the prevalence and main risk factors for enuresis in Iranian children.

There is a continuing debate on the accurate prevalence estimates of overactive bladder (OAB) among different ethnicities and regions. The aims of our study were to determine the prevalence of OAB, associated risk factors, and the impact of OAB on the quality of life and sexual function of Iranian women. A total of 8748 women between 15 and 55 years of age enrolled in this cross-sectional study. The definition of the 2002 International Continence Society (ICS) was applied to assess the prevalence of OAB. All participants underwent a detailed history and physical examination that included an evaluation of quality of life, coping strategies and treatment-seeking behavior, laboratory tests, urinalysis and current or previous therapy. The degree of bother was quantified using s visual analog scale (VAS). The overall prevalence of OAB was found to be 18.2% and increased with age from 10.9% in adults aged 15-29 years to 26.2% in those aged [50 years old (test for trend, P = 0.001). A negative impact of OAB on sexual function was reported by 72.3% of the women. Frequency was the most commonly reported symptom (67% of women), followed by urgency (54%). Subjects with OAB had a higher prevalence of anxiety (28.2 vs. 8.8%; P = 0.001), depression (38.2 vs. 18.2%; P = 0.02) and tiredness (16.4 vs. 2.7%; P = 0.001), and they reported significant impairment in carrying out household chores (P = 0.01), physical activities (P = 0.01) and work-related activities (P = 0.01) as well as negative effects on education (P = 0.02), sleep (P = 0.001), relationships (P = 0.001) and annual income (P = 0.01). The prevalence of OAB in Iranian women is higher than that reported in many previous studies in developed and developing countries. Our results reveal that OAB is a highly prevalent condition among Iranian women and that is has a serious impact on quality of life and sexual function.

Epidemiology of benign prostatic hyper-plasia (BPH) is incompletely understood. The following study was done to estimate the prevalence of BPH according to obstructive and irritative symptoms of prostate obstruction determined by uroflowmetry and prostate size. In a cross-sectional study a total of 8,466 men aged 40 or older were interviewed by 74 general practitioners and answered the International Prostate Symptom Score (I-PSS) questionnaire. The subjects were randomly identified from 30 counties of Iran. They were invited to have a digital rectal examination (DRE), serum total prostate-specific antigen (tPSA) assay, abdominal ultrasonog-raphy to measure prostate size and measurement of maximum urinary flow rate (Qmax). Data on medical history, toxic habits, and current use of medications were obtained. Of the men interviewed, the prevalence of BPH, defined as I-PSS greater than 7, maximum flow less than 15 ml/s and prostate size greater than 30 gm, was 23.8%. The prevalence increased with age, from 1.2% in men 40-49 to 36% in those [70 years (tested for trend, P = 0.001). A positive association was found between BPH and body mass index (BMI) (P = 0.04), height (P = 0.03), diabetes mellitus (P = 0.04), increased total energy intake (P = 0.02), age-adjusted levels of total PSA (P = 0.02), heart disease (P = 0.03), and marital status (P = 0.01). The prevalence of BPH is relatively high in Iran. The provided bothersome due to BPH did not correlate to symptom severity and should be considered independently in clinical decision-making.

Objective: To report the results from an Iranian large population-based randomized study of screening using prostate-specific antigen (PSA) to detect prostate cancer. Materials and Methods: A total of 3758 Iranian men older than 40 years were mass checked by PSA-based screening. Men with an abnormal digital rectal examination (DRE) and serum total PSA level of greater than 4 ng/mL, underwent transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS)-guided extended prostate biopsy. Results: The PSA value (mean standard deviation, SD) in all men without prostate cancer was 1.6 1.1 ng/mL and in those with cancer 18 44.8 ng/mL (P = 0.001). PSA values increased with age. In those aged 40-49, 50-59, 60-69 and 70 years, the mean SD PSA values were 1.3 0.7, 1.4 0.8, 1.8 1 and 2.2 1.6 ng/mL, respectively. Among the screened men, 323 (8.6%) had a serum PSA concentration greater than 4 ng/mL. Of patients who underwent prostate biopsy (230, 71.2%), 129 (positive predictive value, 56.1%) had prostate cancer. Additionally, nine cancers were detected among 16 patients with PSA of less than 4 ng/mL who had a doubtful DRE finding. The overall cancer detection rate was 3.6%; 1.4% at 40-49, 1.6% at 50-59, 4.2% at 60-69 and 12.9% at 70 years. Conventional systematic sextant biopsies, which accounted for six of the 10 cores in our biopsy scheme, detected 98 (71%) of the cancers. Conclusions: The Iranian male population develops prostate cancer quite commonly if their serum PSA levels are greater than 4.0 ng/mL. In this study, 65.9% of the detected cancers were clinically significant. The conventional systematic sextant technique may be inappropriate for detection of all prostate cancers. The results need to be confirmed in other randomized trials.

To explore the prevalence and risk factors of infertility in Iran, a total of 12 285 ever-married women aged 15-50 years old and their husbands (if available) were interviewed by 82 female general practitioners and answered a self-administered questionnaire on several aspects of infertility. They were identified from the national population in 30 counties, and invited to a confidential interview. Data were obtained about their age, education, marital status, toxic habits, medical history, disabilities and illnesses, help-seeking, economy, ethnicity, geographic location, contraceptive use and age at which they had first intercourse. This study used the definition of childlessness proposed by World Health Organization: 'the woman has never conceived despite cohabitation and exposure to pregnancy for a period of 2 years'. The overall prevalence of infertility was 8% (95% CI: 3.2-15.0). The weighted national estimate of primary infertility was 4.6% (95% CI: 3.6-5.2). There was a pronounced regional pattern in the levels of primary infertility. The primary infertility increased significantly from 2.6 to 4.3 to 5.5% for the 1985-1989, 1990-1994 and 1995-2000 marriage cohorts. The prevalence of secondary infertility was 3.4% (95% CI: 2.4-5.1). Overall the prevalence of infertility falls within a relatively wide range being high in the Southern counties, and low in the Northern counties. The probability of first pregnancy at the end of 2 years of marriage was 0.78 for all ever-married women. The prevalence of infertility increased with age (linear chi-square 198.012, 1 d.f., p = 0.01). The age pattern of infertility also varies quite markedly across the counties analysed. No effect of race was detected; neither the intercept (analysis of covariance p = 0.36) nor the slope of the age relationship was influenced by race (analysis of covariance p = 0.41). Infertility were observed as significantly higher in the presence of history of tubo-ovarian surgery [odds ratio (OR): 1.43; 95% CI: 1.28-2.23; p = 0.01], salpingitis (OR: 2.34; 95% CI: 1.31-4.3; p = 0.016), ectopic pregnancy (OR: 2.45; 95% CI: 1.90-3.44; p = 0.04), varicocele (OR: 2.85; 95% CI: 1.61-5.20; p = 0.01) and cryptorchidism (OR: 3.81; 95% CI: 2.51-4.28; p = 0.031). This study provides a quantitative estimate of the prevalence and main risk factors for infertility in Iranian couples. Yet, further studies on the cause of primary and secondary infertility and geographical variations in the incidence and prevalence of infertility in Iran are needed.

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence, incidence, and risk factors of adult urolithiasis in Iran. A total of 8,413 persons aged over 14 years enrolled in this cross-sectional study. They were questioned on the occurrence of urinary stones during their lifetime (prevalence) and on acute urolithiasis in 2005 (incidence) by 62 general practitioners. The subjects were randomly identiWed from 30 counties of Iran. Data on risk factors for urolithiasis including age, race, education, body mass index, hypertension, and current use of medication were also obtained by self-administered questionnaire. Of the 7,649 participants who provided information, 5.7% (436) [95% conWdence interval (CI) 4.2-5.4], reported urinary stones. The prevalence increased from 0.9% in adults aged 15-29 years to 8.2% in those aged 60-69 years (test for trend, P = 0.001). Urolithiasis was slightly more frequent and persisted in males (6.1%) than females (5.3%) giving a male-to-female ratio of 1.15:1 [odds ratio (OR) 1.03; 95% CI 0.64-1.36; P = 0.814]. The annual incidence of urolith-iasis in 2005 was 145.1. The average cumulative recurrence rate was 16% after 1 year, 32% after 5 years, and 53% after 10 years. Urinary stones were more in number among men and women who lived in south central and southwest counties , with odds increasing from west to east and from north to south. A positive association was found between urolith-iasis and obesity (OR 1.74; 95% CI 1.21-2.31; P = 0.04), diuretic use (OR 1.62; 95% CI 1.18-2.70; P = 0.03), hyper-tension (OR 1.88; 95% CI 1.26-2.18; P = 0.04), unemployment (OR 2.10; 95% CI 1.43-2.14; P = 0.04), consumption of tea (OR 1.64; 95% CI 1.32-2.62; P = 0.03), consumption of cola (OR 1.49; 95% CI 1.23-2.19; P = 0.02), and meat consumption (OR 1.38; 95% CI 1.29-2.21; P = 0.02). This study provides a quantitative estimate of the prevalence , incidence, and main risk factors for adult urolithiasis in the Iranian population. Further studies are warranted in order to determine the incidence and prevalence of urolith-iasis in diVerent ethnic groups.

To explore the prevalence and risk factors of female sexual dysfunction (FSD) in Iran. A total of 2626 women aged 20-60 years old were interviewed by 41 female general practitioners and answered a self-administered questionnaire on several aspects of FSD including desire, arousal, pain and orgasmic disorders (OD). Criteria of sexual dysfunction followed classification by DSM-IV. The sexual function was evaluated by the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI). The subjects were randomly identified from 28 counties of Iran. Data on medical history, toxic habits and current use of medication were also obtained. Of the women interviewed, 31.5% (759) reported FSD. The prevalence increased with age, from 26% in women aged 20-39 years to 39% in those 450 years (tested for trend Po0.001). Thirty-seven percent reported OD, 35% desire disorders (DD) and 30% arousal disorders (AD), all of which increased significantly with age. Pain disorders were reported by 26.7%, occurring most frequently in women aged 20-29 years. The educational level (P ¼ 0.01) and marriage age (o18 years) (P ¼ 0.04) were inversely correlated with the risk of DD, OD and AD. No significant differences were detected in smoking history (P ¼ 0.18), the presence of previous pelvic surgery (P ¼ 0.08) and contraception methods used (P ¼ 0.42). A history of psychological problems (P ¼ 0.04), married status (P ¼ 0.03), low physical activity (P ¼ 0.012), chronic disease (Po0.01), multiparity (Po0.05) menopause status (Pp0.01) and spousal erectile dysfunction (P ¼ 0.01) were significantly associated with FSD. This study provides a quantitative estimate of the prevalence and the main risk factors for FSD in Iranian women.

To explore the prevalence of and risk factors for erectile dysfunction (ED) in Iran. A total of 2674 men aged 20-70 y old were interviewed by 42 general practitioners and answered a self-administered questionnaire. The subjects were randomly identified from 28 counties of Iran. ED was defined as difficulties in achieving an erection before sexual intercourse and maintaining it. Data on medical history, toxic habits, and current use of medications were also obtained. Of the men interviewed, 18.8% (460) reported ED. Impotence was found to be significantly associated with age and was less associated with geographical location. The prevalence increased with age, from 6% in men 20-39 y to 47% in those 460 y (tested for trend Po0.001). A history of diabetes (odds ratio (OR) 3.72, 95% confidence interval (CI), 2.51-5.71), hypertension (OR 1.69, 95% CI, 1.31-2.40), peripheral vascular disorders (OR 2.44, 95% CI, 1.65-3.74), hypercholesterolemia (OR 1.71, 95% CI, 1.11-2.65), and coronary artery disease (OR 1.61, 95% CI, 1.21-2.85) were significantly associated with ED. In comparison with never smokers, the OR of ED was 2.41 (95% CI, 1.52-3.30) for current smokers and 2.15 (95% CI, 1.38-3.1) for exsmokers and increased with duration of the habit. Drug intake, called tranquilizers and antidepressants, correlated strongly (OR 3.71, 95% CI, 2.51-6.76 and OR 2.80, 95% CI, 1.47-4.32, respectively). This study provides a quantitative estimate of the prevalence and main risk factors for ED in Iranian men.