Papers by Pedro Baptista
The Iberian Stelae of the Final Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age Iconography, Technology and the Transfer of Knowledge Between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 2025
The authors seek to outline the main aspects of the occupation of the westernmost area of the Ibe... more The authors seek to outline the main aspects of the occupation of the westernmost area of the Iberian Central System, consisting, from East to West, of the Gata, Malcata,
Estrela and Gardunha mountain ranges, during the transition between the 2nd to the 1st millennium BC. The approach revolves around “stelae”: stone monuments that not only marked specific places in their territory, but continuously (re)built their own landscapes. They amount to about a dozen, located, mostly, around the mountain edges, and while apparently isolated, deeply connected to the settlements, the true references of the living experiences of these communities.
The study will tackle different aspects inherent to stelae, with emphasis on those of spatial and territorial nature, namely the relationship between its raw materials and the
regional lithology, and, at the same time, between these monuments and the proximity / distance to the most critical resource at the time: metal. The studied region is particularly rich in copper, tin, and gold mineral resources, available both in veins and in alluvium, and the stelae depict it in a figurative and sublime way, through weapons and other assets of power
Geoarchaeology 40, Issue 6, 2025
At Monte dos Zebros (Idanha-a-Nova, Central Portugal), the discovery of three stelae-two Iberian ... more At Monte dos Zebros (Idanha-a-Nova, Central Portugal), the discovery of three stelae-two Iberian Late Bronze Age stelae and one fragment of an Early/Middle Bronze Age anthropomorphic stela-represents a rare case of rock art monuments from different chronologies coexisting in the same place within a broader archaeological landscape, which includes numerous burial mounds. Although not unique, it is also among the few known instances where meta-sedimentary rocks were used for such monuments. Previously, no definitive lithological classification had been established, though macroscopic assessments suggested materials such as greywacke or granite. This study confirms that the stelae are made of meta-arkose, a subordinate rock type in the region. Surrounding stelae are predominantly crafted from magmatic or metamorphic rocks, highlighting a distinct selection process at Zebros. Four sedimentological mapping methods, not commonly associated with archaeological research, enabled a palaeogeographic reconstruction for c. 1000 BC, facilitating a highly selective sampling strategy. The findings indicate that the raw materials were sourced from two outcrops near the site, demonstrating an advanced knowledge of lithological properties and landscape dynamics. The stelae makers leveraged natural processes, such as differential fluvial erosion, to extract the most competent slabs with ease. The meta-arkoses show optimal workability, and structurally isotropic specimens were deliberately chosen for carving, underscoring a sophisticated understanding of material behaviour and practical utility. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Conimbriga, 63, pp. 5-46, 2024
Prehistoric statue-menhirs and stelae are amongst the most interesting and at the same time probl... more Prehistoric statue-menhirs and stelae are amongst the most interesting and at the same time problematic monuments in Iberia. Almost none of these self-standing pieces of rock art have been found within an archaeological context, and chronologies are often based on iconography alone. The statue-menhir of Nave 1 appeared to be in situ and thus offered the unique possibility for the investigation of chronological, technological, and contextual issues. The monument has been excavated and its pit could be recorded; C14 samples could be taken from a stratigraphic unit cut by this pit and a nearby fireplace. The stratigraphy and findings are presented, illustrated with graphic materials from the excavation. The protocol of a cleaning process to remove lichen from the granite slab is presented. After an archaeological contextualization, the obtained data is discussed and promising perspectives for future work at this important site are presented.
Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2026
This study presents new metallographic and microhardness data from the working tip of an iron chi... more This study presents new metallographic and microhardness data from the working tip of an iron chisel from Rocha do Vigio, south-western Iberia, dated to the ninth century BCE. Previous analyses of the butt section established the artefact as a bloomery steel, but the cutting end had not been examined. The new observations reveal a homogeneous, very fine pearlitic to pearlitic-bainitic structure with limited ferrite and no martensite, indicating faster but not fully quenched cooling. Vickers hardness values corroborate a modest mechanical gradient between the softer butt and the refined tip, consistent with thermal control during forging. The alloy's low manganese content indicates that the hardenability of bloomery steels differs markedly from modern reference compositions, highlighting the need for transformation data specific to low-Mn systems. The site's associated smelting slags confirm local primary iron production. Together, these results suggest that the Rocha do Vigio chisel embodies a deliberate adaptation of Bronze-Age thermal working practices to the novel material of steel, illustrating that early iron metallurgy in Iberia evolved through continuity of skill rather than technological breakthrough.
Açafa on line, 2021
This memorandum documents the actions carried out under the Mesopotamos projects “Settlement from... more This memorandum documents the actions carried out under the Mesopotamos projects “Settlement from the 5th to the 1st millennium BC between the Tagus and the Zêzere in the present Beira Baixa”, approved in 2015 by the DGPC as PIPA (Multiannual Research Project in Archeology), and LTDM “Defensive Line of Talhadas-Moradal” mainly having, mainly the Proença-a-Nova (CAPN) Archaeological Field (International) as operational framework. Mesopotamos was in effect between 1 July 2017 and 30 June 2018.
Baptista, P; Montero Ruiz, I.; Silva, R. C.; Silva; A.R.; Vilaça, R. (2021) – Do Bronze ao Ferro na Cova da Beira: novos dados sobre a Quinta da Samaria (Fundão/ Covilhã). In Vilaça, R. & Salvado, P. (coord.), Eburobriga, n.º 10, Fundão, p. 49-6. Eburobriga, 2021
(I)Mobilidades na Pré-história. Pessoas, recursos, objetos, sítios e territórios, 2020
In this paper, we explore the potential of using Geographical Information Systems in the study of... more In this paper, we explore the potential of using Geographical Information Systems in the study of human mobility. In one hand, we take it as a complex phenomenon, albeit fundamental to the understanding of past dynamics. On the other, we recognize the need to adapt the tools we use considering our goals and the case study itself. Our intent here is to showcase and clarify the meanings of several spatial analysis and their results, demonstrating that their selection and application depend on a deep knowledge on how they work, as well as on the nature of the archaeological record.
Our case studies are the communities that inhabited the Beira Interior (Central Portugal) during the Late Bronze Age (between the 12th and 8th century BC), discussing a series of accessibility and visibility analysis applied to this territory which allow us to determine potential passage corridors and the most relevant spatial markers.
Finally, we point out the need to articulate these new methods of research with different kinds of archaeological studies, as that is the only way new ideas and problematics can be debated: with more data available.
In Vilaça, Raquel & Aguiar, Rodrigo (coord.), I)Mobilidades na Pré-história. Pessoas, recursos, objetos, sítios e territórios. Coimbra, Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, p. 15-49.
Mobility is key to human nature, as it is present on all spheres
of its action and experience, en... more Mobility is key to human nature, as it is present on all spheres
of its action and experience, encompassing multiple scales and forms
of expression. Many are the viewpoints and methods to approach
its problematics, all necessary and complementary in one way or
another. And if the understanding of the dynamics of past human
actions is conditioned by the nature and quality of available data,
its full potential depends on a holistic, interdisciplinary, multiscalar,
diachronic, transverse and comparative framework.
Throughout this text, the nature of which is essentially theoretical
and methodological, we will reflect on some of these aspects which,
in practical terms, verse three main research axis. On one hand, the
study of goods, organic and inorganic, crude, transformed or prepared,
raw materials and objects, everyday or exceptional. On the other, the
analysis of their projection in space, edified or not, but appropriated and
practiced upon, implying movement, communication, and action. Lastly,
the comprehension of landscapes, territories, and places as significant
entities in the social, economic, symbolic and identitary spheres, creating
and recreating themselves in continuum, through human action and
mobility. Some case studies from pre and proto-historic communities will be brought up to substantiate our considerations, illustrating the
diversity and richness this theme encases.
Açafa On-Line. III Jornadas de Arqueologia do Vale do Tejo, 2017
A construção da nova fábrica de papel Tissue, da empresa Paper Prime, S.A., em Vila Velha de Ródã... more A construção da nova fábrica de papel Tissue, da empresa Paper Prime, S.A., em Vila Velha de Ródão, levou à identifcação e escavação do sítio arqueológico Revelada 2. O sítio foi escavado até ao substrato geológico numa área superior a 170m2, tendo-se individualizado dezenas de unidades estratigráfcas. Do espólio arqueológico recolhido constam mais de 40000 artefactos entre indústria lítica, termoclastos e cerâmica pré-histórica, parte dele aparentemente associado a possíveis estruturas de combustão e buracos de poste. A seriação preliminar do acervo permite apontar para a presença de uma sequência de ocupações pré-históricas constituída por, pelo menos, Neolítico,
Epipaleolítico e Paleolítico Médio. Porém, diversos fenómenos de formação de sítio, nomeadamente dinâmicas de vertente e agricultura, afectaram de forma assimétrica diversos contextos em área, profundidade ou intensidade. Neste artigo pretende-se fazer a apresentação de Revelada 2, dos trabalhos, metodologias, resultados e da sua interpretação preliminar, deixando em aberto a revisão da mesma em trabalhos futuros.
Books by Pedro Baptista
O livro de Proença-a-Velha - A terra e as gentes, 2025
Referimo-nos aos membros da AEAT que são co-autores deste trabalho. 2 A freguesia de Proença-a-Ve... more Referimo-nos aos membros da AEAT que são co-autores deste trabalho. 2 A freguesia de Proença-a-Velha é uma das 13 freguesias do concelho de Idanha-a-Nova. Localiza-se a nor-noroeste da sede de concelho, a cerca de 12,5 km de distância rodoviária. Tem uma área de 58 km 2 , uma baixa densidade populacional e um único núcleo urbano. 3 Indicam-se as quantidades de sítios arqueológicos registados no Portal do Arqueólogo (DGPC), referentes às freguesias vizinhas de Proença-a-Velha: 25 em Pedrógão de São Pedro e Bemposta, concelho de Penamacor (este número está desactualizado, em virtude do trabalho de inventário arqueológico da responsabilidade de Fernando Henriques e Cézer Santos realizado em 2014, na área da antiga freguesia de Bemposta; estes investigadores identificaram 36 ocorrências com lapso temporal muito alargado, do Paleolítico Inferior à Época Moderna); quatro em Aldeia de
Estudos Pré-históricos, vol. XIX, 2019
Facing mobility as a central study object by its own right, this dissertation proposes an innovat... more Facing mobility as a central study object by its own right, this dissertation proposes an innovative methodology that allows the characterisation and analysis of its elements and dynamics in a holistic fashion, based on the articulation between the archaeological record, the territory, an interdisciplinary conceptual framework and a vast set of spatial analyses using Geographic Information Systems.
Due to the shortage of literature that addresses these themes among Archaeology, a theoretical body was created based on the contributions of Social Anthropology and Human Geography, discussing issues related to mobility, spatial markers, places and routes.
In practical terms, its application takes shape over the Beira Interior Centro e Sul, a Portuguese region, where we focus our analysis on the Late Bronze Age, articulating the territory’s features, the various archaeological testimonies of the period under study, as well from a more distant past, whose scars marked the landscape profusely.
Thus, we used a wide range of accessibility and visibility analyses, whose variables we adapted to the particularities of the case study and to our objectives, working the geographical base data and always justifying the technical procedures followed.
As such, we made use of isochrones, flow accumulation models, and visibility basins, either binary, Higuchi, or directed basins, which were punctually complemented by a series of ground-truthing actions.
Through this method, we tried to determine the best passage corridors and the most relevant landscape markers, interpreting them in accordance with the dynamics of circulation, orientation and power projection during the Late Bronze Age.
Conference Presentations by Pedro Baptista
Beira Alta, 2021
The funerary megalithism of Proença-a-Nova had its first substantive disclosure with Georg and Ve... more The funerary megalithism of Proença-a-Nova had its first substantive disclosure with Georg and Vera Leisner. The results of the reconnaissance campaign carried out in that territory in 1945 were only published postmortem in 1998. From the last quarter of the 20th century the field recognitions promoted by the Alto Tejo Studies Association (AEAT in portuguese) motivated the inclusion, by the Municipality of Proença-a-Nova, of three megalithic graves in a walking path called "História na Paisagem". The shared interest between the association and the municipality in studying and didactically enhancing these monuments gave rise, in 2012, to the Proença-a-Nova Archaeological Field Camp (CAPN in portuguese) and, later, to the research project Mesopotamos-Settlements from the 5th to the 1st millennium BC between the Tagus and the Zêzere rivers in the current Beira Baixa. Among the tombs investigated so far, Cabeço da Anta, a large structure, in good condition, of prime importance in the area of the current Beira Baixa Intermunicipal Community and a repository of knowledge on megalithic architecture, deserves special mention.
Açafa on line, 2021
Mobility appears to be a fundamental process in the development of human experience and, conseque... more Mobility appears to be a fundamental process in the development of human experience and, consequently, in its understanding. In its complexity, it takes place in a singular game between Man, Space and Time, the latter only materialized in the first two. That is why the analysis of routes in a territory like Beira Baixa is of great importance, always based on a holistic and long-term perspective. It is with these guidelines that in the present colloquium the routes are approached as marks of past and present mobility, accumulating the choices and experiences of the communities that travelled through the territories they had as their own. Ultimately, recognizing them as a crucial part of our history, irreparably truncated without their study and due appreciation.
Book chapters by Pedro Baptista
The Iberian Stelae of the Final Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age: Iconography, Technology and the Transfer of Knowledge Between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 2025
This study investigates the transportation and integration of Western Iberian stelae within Late ... more This study investigates the transportation and integration of Western Iberian stelae within Late Bronze Age landscapes through GIS-based spatial analyses. Leveraging extensive spatial data from “The Iberian stelae of the Final Bronze Age” interdisciplinary research project, we focus on the movement of stelae from their potential quarries, determined through provenance studies, to their chosen places. We explore the cultural and territorial significance of these monuments between the Tagus River and the Iberian Central System. The analysis utilizes Least-Cost Analysis, employing Tobler’s hiking function to create Least-Cost Surfaces, and includes Least-Cost Paths and Focal Mobility Networks to trace potential routes. Topographic profiles of these paths are examined to determine and compare distance, slope, and walking time. Labour estimates and visibility and accessibility analyses further contextualize the complex and dynamic relationship between paths, quarries, and stelae within the Late Bronze Age landscape. Our findings shed light on how quarries were procured and how the transportation routes integrated into the existing natural and cultural landscape, offering new insights into the spatial dynamics of Late Bronze Age communities. Lastly, this study underscores the methodological potential of GIS in multi-scalar Landscape Archaeology analyses.
The Iberian Stelae of the Final Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age - Iconography, Technology and the Transfer of Knowledge Between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 2025
This chapter will first present the stelae and the rocks that
have been used for their making fro... more This chapter will first present the stelae and the rocks that
have been used for their making from the two core study
areas of this project, namely the Portuguese Beira, with a
focus on the Beira Interior, and the Spanish Extremadura,
with a focus on the Zújar valley. The geology of both regions
will be taken into consideration for the analyses. The
material properties of the lithotypes, distances between stelae
and rock outcrops, as well as landscape settings are considered,
all of which played a role in the choices made by
prehistoric artisans. The approach and results from petrological
studies will be presented and the results will be discussed.
This showed selective patterns for the choice of particular
lithotypes for stelae. Finally, the implications of
these material selections with relevance to the underlying
knowledge of materials and technologies that had to be
applied for rock art making in FBA-EIA Iberia will be
evaluated from a geo-archaeological perspective.
Arqueologia em Portugal - 2023 – Estado da Questão, 2023
RESUMO
Reavaliam-se neste trabalho as quatro metalografias atualmente disponíveis para artefacto... more RESUMO
Reavaliam-se neste trabalho as quatro metalografias atualmente disponíveis para artefactos de ferro atribuídos ao Bronze Final ou à transição para o Ferro Inicial na Península Ibérica, comentando aspetos relacionados com a sua cadeia operatória e propriedades físicas através de uma perspetiva interdisciplinar, cruzando contributos
da arqueologia, arqueometalurgia e ciências dos materiais.
Desta reavaliação, apesar do carácter incipiente da metalurgia destes primeiros ferros, assinalam-se vários indicadores diretos e indiretos do reconhecimento das suas potencialidades físicas que se mostram perfeitamente adequadas à função para a qual foram produzidos. Conclui-se com a necessidade de prosseguir com esta linha de investigação, alertando para a importância da realização de análises metalográficas sob pena de perder um vasto manancial informativo devido à corrosão destes materiais.
ABSTRACT
In this paper, the four metallographic analyses available for early iron artefacts from the Final Bronze Age and the transition to the Early Iron Age in the Iberian Peninsula are reevaluated through an interdisciplinary framework, articulating contributions from archaeology, archaeometallurgy and material sciences, and highlighting the aspects related to their operatory chain and physical properties.
Based on these, despite the incipient character of this early iron metallurgy, there are several direct and indirect indicators that their physical potentialities were recognized and valued, being well adjusted to their respective functions.
Lastly, we alert to the importance of metallographic analyses to keep this research line active, with the added risk of losing vast troves of information due to iron’s rapid corrosion.
Actas X Congreso Internacional de Fenicios y Púnicos, 2025
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Papers by Pedro Baptista
Estrela and Gardunha mountain ranges, during the transition between the 2nd to the 1st millennium BC. The approach revolves around “stelae”: stone monuments that not only marked specific places in their territory, but continuously (re)built their own landscapes. They amount to about a dozen, located, mostly, around the mountain edges, and while apparently isolated, deeply connected to the settlements, the true references of the living experiences of these communities.
The study will tackle different aspects inherent to stelae, with emphasis on those of spatial and territorial nature, namely the relationship between its raw materials and the
regional lithology, and, at the same time, between these monuments and the proximity / distance to the most critical resource at the time: metal. The studied region is particularly rich in copper, tin, and gold mineral resources, available both in veins and in alluvium, and the stelae depict it in a figurative and sublime way, through weapons and other assets of power
Our case studies are the communities that inhabited the Beira Interior (Central Portugal) during the Late Bronze Age (between the 12th and 8th century BC), discussing a series of accessibility and visibility analysis applied to this territory which allow us to determine potential passage corridors and the most relevant spatial markers.
Finally, we point out the need to articulate these new methods of research with different kinds of archaeological studies, as that is the only way new ideas and problematics can be debated: with more data available.
of its action and experience, encompassing multiple scales and forms
of expression. Many are the viewpoints and methods to approach
its problematics, all necessary and complementary in one way or
another. And if the understanding of the dynamics of past human
actions is conditioned by the nature and quality of available data,
its full potential depends on a holistic, interdisciplinary, multiscalar,
diachronic, transverse and comparative framework.
Throughout this text, the nature of which is essentially theoretical
and methodological, we will reflect on some of these aspects which,
in practical terms, verse three main research axis. On one hand, the
study of goods, organic and inorganic, crude, transformed or prepared,
raw materials and objects, everyday or exceptional. On the other, the
analysis of their projection in space, edified or not, but appropriated and
practiced upon, implying movement, communication, and action. Lastly,
the comprehension of landscapes, territories, and places as significant
entities in the social, economic, symbolic and identitary spheres, creating
and recreating themselves in continuum, through human action and
mobility. Some case studies from pre and proto-historic communities will be brought up to substantiate our considerations, illustrating the
diversity and richness this theme encases.
Epipaleolítico e Paleolítico Médio. Porém, diversos fenómenos de formação de sítio, nomeadamente dinâmicas de vertente e agricultura, afectaram de forma assimétrica diversos contextos em área, profundidade ou intensidade. Neste artigo pretende-se fazer a apresentação de Revelada 2, dos trabalhos, metodologias, resultados e da sua interpretação preliminar, deixando em aberto a revisão da mesma em trabalhos futuros.
Books by Pedro Baptista
Due to the shortage of literature that addresses these themes among Archaeology, a theoretical body was created based on the contributions of Social Anthropology and Human Geography, discussing issues related to mobility, spatial markers, places and routes.
In practical terms, its application takes shape over the Beira Interior Centro e Sul, a Portuguese region, where we focus our analysis on the Late Bronze Age, articulating the territory’s features, the various archaeological testimonies of the period under study, as well from a more distant past, whose scars marked the landscape profusely.
Thus, we used a wide range of accessibility and visibility analyses, whose variables we adapted to the particularities of the case study and to our objectives, working the geographical base data and always justifying the technical procedures followed.
As such, we made use of isochrones, flow accumulation models, and visibility basins, either binary, Higuchi, or directed basins, which were punctually complemented by a series of ground-truthing actions.
Through this method, we tried to determine the best passage corridors and the most relevant landscape markers, interpreting them in accordance with the dynamics of circulation, orientation and power projection during the Late Bronze Age.
Conference Presentations by Pedro Baptista
Book chapters by Pedro Baptista
have been used for their making from the two core study
areas of this project, namely the Portuguese Beira, with a
focus on the Beira Interior, and the Spanish Extremadura,
with a focus on the Zújar valley. The geology of both regions
will be taken into consideration for the analyses. The
material properties of the lithotypes, distances between stelae
and rock outcrops, as well as landscape settings are considered,
all of which played a role in the choices made by
prehistoric artisans. The approach and results from petrological
studies will be presented and the results will be discussed.
This showed selective patterns for the choice of particular
lithotypes for stelae. Finally, the implications of
these material selections with relevance to the underlying
knowledge of materials and technologies that had to be
applied for rock art making in FBA-EIA Iberia will be
evaluated from a geo-archaeological perspective.
Reavaliam-se neste trabalho as quatro metalografias atualmente disponíveis para artefactos de ferro atribuídos ao Bronze Final ou à transição para o Ferro Inicial na Península Ibérica, comentando aspetos relacionados com a sua cadeia operatória e propriedades físicas através de uma perspetiva interdisciplinar, cruzando contributos
da arqueologia, arqueometalurgia e ciências dos materiais.
Desta reavaliação, apesar do carácter incipiente da metalurgia destes primeiros ferros, assinalam-se vários indicadores diretos e indiretos do reconhecimento das suas potencialidades físicas que se mostram perfeitamente adequadas à função para a qual foram produzidos. Conclui-se com a necessidade de prosseguir com esta linha de investigação, alertando para a importância da realização de análises metalográficas sob pena de perder um vasto manancial informativo devido à corrosão destes materiais.
ABSTRACT
In this paper, the four metallographic analyses available for early iron artefacts from the Final Bronze Age and the transition to the Early Iron Age in the Iberian Peninsula are reevaluated through an interdisciplinary framework, articulating contributions from archaeology, archaeometallurgy and material sciences, and highlighting the aspects related to their operatory chain and physical properties.
Based on these, despite the incipient character of this early iron metallurgy, there are several direct and indirect indicators that their physical potentialities were recognized and valued, being well adjusted to their respective functions.
Lastly, we alert to the importance of metallographic analyses to keep this research line active, with the added risk of losing vast troves of information due to iron’s rapid corrosion.