Books by Ralph Araque Gonzalez
BIBLIOTHECA PRAEHISTORICA HISPANA, 2025
The western Iberian stelae from the Final Bronze Age and Early Iron Age transition (c. 1200-550 B... more The western Iberian stelae from the Final Bronze Age and Early Iron Age transition (c. 1200-550 BC) are rock art monuments that superbly represent the complex triangular relationship between culture, technol-ogy and communication. This book presents contributions from a multidisciplinary team of researchers and craftspeople to the comprehensive investigation of these monuments within their cultural and chronological contexts. The approaches encompass geo-archaeology, petrology, experimental archaeology, landscape archaeology and visual culture studies. Moreover, the technologies of prehistoric stone working and possible tools used for stelae making are examined by archaeometallurgical analyses, experimental rep-lications, and traceology.
This combined methodology goes beyond the traditional study of the motifs and their compositions on the stelae, seeking to re-evaluate the rock supports and the reasons for their choice, explore the technologies used for their production, and discover the symbolic significance of these stelae for the communities who created them. Eventually, this research considers the perspectives of stonemasonry, bronze and iron met-allurgy, and technology transfer. This has resulted in new insights on the social and cultural implications of the Western Iberian stelae, the emergence of early Iberian iron metallurgy, technology transfer, innovation, and intercultural contacts between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic at the dawn of history.
Inter-cultural communications and iconography in the western Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age 2018 - full text, 2018
Inter-cultural Communications and Iconography in the Western Mediterranean during the Late Bronze... more Inter-cultural Communications and Iconography in the Western Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age
Ralph Araque Gonzalez
397 pages, 214 illustrations and 20 tables.
The symbolic images of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (c. 1300-525 BC) that were widespread in the central and western Mediterranean offer a broad base for the understanding of the inter-cultural communications and the alleged spread of ideas and knowledge throughout the area. This book comprises the first comprehensive, comparative analysis of iconographical records from Sardinia, Southwest Iberia, Corsica and Sicily within their archaeological context of the intense contacts that had emerged in the Mediterranean during the Bronze Age.
Settlement archaeology, monument building, funeral rites and religious ritual as well as local economic approaches in these four regions, which were connected by a network of anchorages, are also examined and compared. The communitarian organization as well as the allocation of power within prehistoric societies are analyzed through alternative theoretical methods considering heterarchy and complex anarchic societies. In this context, sometimes dramatic socio-political changes in the Early Iron Age, which further resulted in changes in local art and symbolism, can be explained through manipulative strategies, intensified communications or – to the contrary – dissociation.
This volume contains comprehensive, fully illustrated data on 245 Sardinian anthropomorphic bronze figurines as well as references to 216 zoomorphic bronzetti and 146 boat models. Furthermore, 118 western Iberian stelae have been analyzed in detail and are contrasted with the completely diverging motives of the Iberian Early Iron Age. Finally, the statue-menhirs of Corsica and the figurative art of Sicily complete the material basis of this study. This pioneering work provides chronological data, iconographical and archaeological analyses as well as distribution maps and therefore offers an invaluable database for Mediterranean archaeology.
The symbolic images of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (c. 1300-525 BC) that were widespre... more The symbolic images of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (c. 1300-525 BC) that were widespread in the central and western Mediterranean offer a broad base for the understanding of the inter-cultural communications and the alleged spread of ideas and knowledge throughout the area. This book comprises the first comprehensive, comparative analysis of iconographical records from Sardinia, Southwest Iberia, Corsica and Sicily within their archaeological context of the intense contacts that had emerged in the Mediterranean during the Bronze Age.
Settlement archaeology, monument building, funeral rites and religious ritual as well as local economic approaches in these four regions, which were connected by a network of anchorages, are also examined and compared. The communitarian organization as well as the allocation of power within prehistoric societies are analyzed through alternative theoretical methods considering heterarchy and complex anarchic societies. In this context, sometimes dramatic socio-political changes in the Early Iron Age, which further resulted in changes in local art and symbolism, can be explained through manipulative strategies, intensified communications or – to the contrary – dissociation.
This volume contains comprehensive, fully illustrated data on 245 Sardinian anthropomorphic bronze figurines as well as references to 216 zoomorphic bronzetti and 146 boat models. Furthermore, 118 western Iberian stelae have been analyzed in detail and are contrasted with the completely diverging motives of the Iberian Early Iron Age. Finally, the statue-menhirs of Corsica and the figurative art of Sicily complete the material basis of this study. This pioneering work provides chronological data, iconographical and archaeological analyses as well as distribution maps and therefore offers an invaluable database for Mediterranean archaeology.
available at Verlag Marie Leidorf, http://vml.de and http://vml.de/e/detail.php?ISBN=978-3-89646-797-3
Papers by Ralph Araque Gonzalez
Marcigny C., Araque Gonzalez R., Blitte H., Ghesquière E., Leroy-Langelin E., Maitay C. et Riquie... more Marcigny C., Araque Gonzalez R., Blitte H., Ghesquière E., Leroy-Langelin E., Maitay C. et Riquier V., 2025 - Violences interpersonnelles, armements et fortifications entre les XIVe et VIIe siècles av. n. è. en Europe de l’Ouest, in. Genechesi J., Pernet L., Barrier S., Demierre M., Genequand D., Luginbühl T., La guerre et son cortège. Réflexions sur les conflits et leur impact sur les cultures des âges du Fer, Actes du 47e colloque international de l’Association française pour l’étude de l’âge du Fer (Lausanne, 18-20 mai 2023), Collection Afeaf, 7, Afeaf, p.347-366.
Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2026
This study presents new metallographic and microhardness data from the working tip of an iron chi... more This study presents new metallographic and microhardness data from the working tip of an iron chisel from Rocha do Vigio, south-western Iberia, dated to the ninth century BCE. Previous analyses of the butt section established the artefact as a bloomery steel, but the cutting end had not been examined. The new observations reveal a homogeneous, very fine pearlitic to pearlitic-bainitic structure with limited ferrite and no martensite, indicating faster but not fully quenched cooling. Vickers hardness values corroborate a modest mechanical gradient between the softer butt and the refined tip, consistent with thermal control during forging. The alloy's low manganese content indicates that the hardenability of bloomery steels differs markedly from modern reference compositions, highlighting the need for transformation data specific to low-Mn systems. The site's associated smelting slags confirm local primary iron production. Together, these results suggest that the Rocha do Vigio chisel embodies a deliberate adaptation of Bronze-Age thermal working practices to the novel material of steel, illustrating that early iron metallurgy in Iberia evolved through continuity of skill rather than technological breakthrough.
Geoarchaeology 40, Issue 6, 2025
At Monte dos Zebros (Idanha-a-Nova, Central Portugal), the discovery of three stelae-two Iberian ... more At Monte dos Zebros (Idanha-a-Nova, Central Portugal), the discovery of three stelae-two Iberian Late Bronze Age stelae and one fragment of an Early/Middle Bronze Age anthropomorphic stela-represents a rare case of rock art monuments from different chronologies coexisting in the same place within a broader archaeological landscape, which includes numerous burial mounds. Although not unique, it is also among the few known instances where meta-sedimentary rocks were used for such monuments. Previously, no definitive lithological classification had been established, though macroscopic assessments suggested materials such as greywacke or granite. This study confirms that the stelae are made of meta-arkose, a subordinate rock type in the region. Surrounding stelae are predominantly crafted from magmatic or metamorphic rocks, highlighting a distinct selection process at Zebros. Four sedimentological mapping methods, not commonly associated with archaeological research, enabled a palaeogeographic reconstruction for c. 1000 BC, facilitating a highly selective sampling strategy. The findings indicate that the raw materials were sourced from two outcrops near the site, demonstrating an advanced knowledge of lithological properties and landscape dynamics. The stelae makers leveraged natural processes, such as differential fluvial erosion, to extract the most competent slabs with ease. The meta-arkoses show optimal workability, and structurally isotropic specimens were deliberately chosen for carving, underscoring a sophisticated understanding of material behaviour and practical utility. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2025
For the study of carved rock art, particular tool materials can only be meaningfully hypothesized... more For the study of carved rock art, particular tool materials can only be meaningfully hypothesized, identified, or excluded by combining traceological analyses with an accurate understanding of the physical-mechanical properties of the carved rock as well as knowledge of the available tool materials from an archaeological, material analytical, and experimental point of view. The aim of this study was to identify the tools that were used during the Final Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition (c. 1200-550 BC) for the carving of western Iberian stelae by comparing the work traces on originals and replications with the same rock supports and the archaeologically identified tool-set. This was achieved by the traceological-technological study and categorisation of the carved lines and motifs, based on the profile sections of the engravings, on a sample of four western Iberian stelae made from granite-aplite, meta-arkoses, and silicate quartz-arenite. All components were replicated according to petrological and metallurgical analyses. This approach, which is based on 3D-scans in combination with GIS and a thorough evaluation of digital data, material analyses, and archaeological data, will be presented here for the first time. The application of GIS and DEM for the analysis of the profile sections of carved ornaments provided analytical and graphical results from 444 profiles, allowing the classification in six different profile typologies. The most striking result is that silicate quartz-arenites cannot be carved with bronze tools and that lithic tools only left superficial traces that are very different from the original stelae from this lithology. Therefore, this particular material, which represents over 20 % of all stelae, could only be carved with hardened steel chisels, while many granitoid and sedimentary rocks could also be carved with lithic tools.
Conimbriga, 63, pp. 5-46, 2024
Prehistoric statue-menhirs and stelae are amongst the most interesting and at the same time probl... more Prehistoric statue-menhirs and stelae are amongst the most interesting and at the same time problematic monuments in Iberia. Almost none of these self-standing pieces of rock art have been found within an archaeological context, and chronologies are often based on iconography alone. The statue-menhir of Nave 1 appeared to be in situ and thus offered the unique possibility for the investigation of chronological, technological, and contextual issues. The monument has been excavated and its pit could be recorded; C14 samples could be taken from a stratigraphic unit cut by this pit and a nearby fireplace. The stratigraphy and findings are presented, illustrated with graphic materials from the excavation. The protocol of a cleaning process to remove lichen from the granite slab is presented. After an archaeological contextualization, the obtained data is discussed and promising perspectives for future work at this important site are presented.
Stone-working and the earliest steel in Iberia: Scientific analyses and experimental replications of final bronze age stelae and tools
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2023
Abstract
The south-western Iberian stelae from the Final Bronze Age (FBA) and Early Iron Age (EI... more Abstract
The south-western Iberian stelae from the Final Bronze Age (FBA) and Early Iron Age (EIA) have long been the centre of archaeological interest. These monuments show representations of human and animal figures, objects such as weapons, ornaments and chariots. Moreover, they provide insights into prehistoric stone working and sculpting techniques. On the downside, petrological studies of the rocks and consequent reflections on suitable tools are still the exception. Due to the lack of analysis and technological studies, this research will put emphasis on a multidisciplinary approach involving petrographic and metallurgic analyses, complemented by experimental archaeology.
Firstly, an accurate lithological determination of stelae from Capilla (Spain) has been established with petrographic methods. According to the results, two slabs for replications of stelae were obtained from the identified mono-mineral quartz-sandstone (“quartzite”) outcrop. The experiment involved the trial of chisels made from all expedient materials that were available in the FBA-EIA by a professional stonemason. Considering that such extremely hard rocks require robust tools for carving, a long ignored iron chisel from the FBA site of Rocha do Vigio (Portugal) was studied with metallography and exposed heterogeneous, however surprisingly high-carbon steel. The analysed rocks are amongst the hardest that can be used for sculpting, and in the course of the experiment, bronze and lithic tools could be discarded. The only tool that showed an effect was the replication of the steel chisel from Rocha do Vigio with a hardened edge. The distinct work traces were compared to the original monuments. We hypothesize that the production of carbon steel as well as its hardening were possibly already known at the FBA-EIA transition in Iberia. Hence, only the access to iron technology allowed for the making of stelae from the lithotypes that were frequently used in the Zújar basin around the municipality of Capilla.
RELIGIONE E ARTE NELLA SARDEGNA NURAGICA Atti del VI Festival della Civiltà Nuragica (Orroli, Cagliari) RELIGION AND ART IN NURAGIC SARDINIA Proceedings of the Sixth Festival of the Nuragic Civilization (Orroli, Cagliari) , 2024
The Sardinian bronzetti represent a unique iconographic body, today consisting of more than 630 r... more The Sardinian bronzetti represent a unique iconographic body, today consisting of more than 630 representations of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures, boats, nuraghi and diverse tools, weapons, vessels and other objects. They were produced from the FBA until the EIA, when contacts with other Mediterranean regions and with Iberia had intensified and pictorial art became a distinctive cultural expression in many regions. Therefore, they provide insights into distinctive local as well as widely shared symbolisms and intercultural contacts through the representations of archetypical figures and characteristic objects (swords, vessels, armoury). The bronzetti were publicly exposed at sanctuaries and often fixed on stone slabs, where they might possibly have been arranged in evocative combinations. The anthropomorphic figurines include women, sometimes as mothers with their babies, persons offering food, shepherds, sexually ambivalent figures, musicians, a “minotaur”, and supernatural fourarmed, four-eyed warriors. The detailed representations of dress, hairstyle, and weapons might have signalled local identity and social coherence. However, over 50% of the figurines, represent warriors, often with horned headgear, armed with sword and shield, or bow and arrow. The statues from Mont’e Prama from the 10th century BC, which thus far represent the oldest stone statuary in the Mediterranean beyond Egypt, the Levant and Anatolia, shared the same warrior theme and many decorative details with the bronze figurines). Some warrior figurines carry pistilliforme swords, a type that was common in the Atlantic Bronze Age and Iberia in the 11th century BC and some of which have also been found on the island. The typological evolution of swords in the FBA followed the same trajectory in Iberia and Sardinia. It is somehow surprising that Sardinians preferred the Iberian-Atlantic weapons to central European types, considering the closer proximity to the Apennine Peninsula and southern France, and to Aegean types, despite their existing eastern contacts. On the other hand, Mycenaean sword types were represented on statue-menhirs in Corsica. There are almost 150 miniature boats, or navicelle, often with a mast and therefore representing sailing vessels. The navicelle are circumstantial evidence that seafaring played a crucial role in FBA Sardinia. Moreover, boats were part of nuragic cosmology: The symbolic complex of the navicelle incorporated horned land animals (bulls, deer, ram) as figureheads, other land animals aboard (pigs, boar, dogs), nuraghe towers and birds as well as ploughing oxen. There was also a number of clay boat-miniatures, some with zoomorphic figureheads, which seem to have been used as lamps or incense- burners at sanctuaries. Largely contemporary clay models of boats are also known from Crete, Cyprus, where they also have animal figureheads of bulls and birds, from Lipari and the Levant. The Byblos hoard (c. 1500–1200 BC) contained several bronze boats, one of which is steered by a monkey, similar to one Sardinian navicella. This indicates that travel and subsequent intercultural contacts were deeply rooted in Sardinian as well as other Mediterranean communities. It is probable that the display of well-known archetypical images like the (horned) warriors or the female and mother-representations and some possibly integrated figures from other regions like the “minotaur” or the monkey on a navicella together with local Sardinian symbols must have enabled strangers who came to the sanctuaries to relate to some shared myths, cosmologies and beliefs. This would be a reference to practices of innovative, more inclusive ritual activities that incorporated guests and newcomers while maintaining local identity, after the ancestor worship at collective megalithic tombs had decreased. The figurines, miniatures and boat models at the sanctuaries could thus be interpreted as a complex of symbolic representations that – amongst many other local and individual levels of meaning –promoted inclusive, shared and sometimes syncretic social practices and rituals that were frequently related to travel and seafaring.
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2025
For the study of carved rock art, particular tool materials can only be meaningfully hypothesized... more For the study of carved rock art, particular tool materials can only be meaningfully hypothesized, identified, or excluded by combining traceological analyses with an accurate understanding of the physical-mechanical properties of the carved rock as well as knowledge of the available tool materials from an archaeological, material analytical, and experimental point of view. The aim of this study was to identify the tools that were used during the Final Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition (c. 1200-550 BC) for the carving of western Iberian stelae by comparing the work traces on originals and replications with the same rock supports and the archaeologically identified tool-set. This was achieved by the traceological-technological study and categorisation of the carved lines and motifs, based on the profile sections of the engravings, on a sample of four western Iberian stelae made from granite-aplite, meta-arkoses, and silicate quartz-arenite. All components were replicated according to petrological and metallurgical analyses. This approach, which is based on 3D-scans in combination with GIS and a thorough evaluation of digital data, material analyses, and archaeological data, will be presented here for the first time. The application of GIS and DEM for the analysis of the profile sections of carved ornaments provided analytical and graphical results from 444 profiles, allowing the classification in six different profile typologies. The most striking result is that silicate quartz-arenites cannot be carved with bronze tools and that lithic tools only left superficial traces that are very different from the original stelae from this lithology. Therefore, this particular material, which represents over 20 % of all stelae, could only be carved with hardened steel chisels, while many granitoid and sedimentary rocks could also be carved with lithic tools.
Open Archaeology
Sardinia was a hub of sea routes in the Final Bronze Age, c. 1200–850 BC, connecting the Aegean a... more Sardinia was a hub of sea routes in the Final Bronze Age, c. 1200–850 BC, connecting the Aegean and the Levant in the East with the Iberian Atlantic façade in the West at its latitudinal extremes. Although situated some 1,200 nautical miles apart, bronze working techniques on the island, specific decorations, and implement typologies were clearly related to those in western Iberia, which was a pivotal node connecting the Atlantic and Mediterranean worlds. Without doubt, individuals have travelled between and beyond both regions, and transported objects alongside technological as well as theoretical information. Although serious challenges accompanied the multi-directional intensification of interactions, the local communities had innovative responses to them, managing to integrate new people and knowledge. The general aim of this contribution is to provide a theoretical framework with which to analyse the motivations and social mechanisms for cooperation and communication that facil...
Open Archaeology, 2023
Sardinia was a hub of sea routes in the Final Bronze Age, c. 1200-850 BC, connecting the Aegean a... more Sardinia was a hub of sea routes in the Final Bronze Age, c. 1200-850 BC, connecting the Aegean and the Levant in the East with the Iberian Atlantic façade in the West at its latitudinal extremes. Although situated some 1,200 nautical miles apart, bronze working techniques on the island, specific decorations, and implement typologies were clearly related to those in western Iberia, which was a pivotal node connecting the Atlantic and Mediterranean worlds. Without doubt, individuals have travelled between and beyond both regions, and transported objects alongside technological as well as theoretical information. Although serious challenges accompanied the multi-directional intensification of interactions, the local communities had innovative responses to them, managing to integrate new people and knowledge. The general aim of this contribution is to provide a theoretical framework with which to analyse the motivations and social mechanisms for cooperation and communication that facilitated technology transfer in an environment of dispersed, socially heterogeneous communities. The exchanges and interactions within this decentralised network must have been self-organised by individuals and communities, and encompassed all forms of entanglement. Consequently, practises of self-governance, hospitality, conflict management, and inter-group communication as well as shared symbols are of central interest.
Gesellschaft und interkulturelle Kommunikation in Sardinien während der Spätbronze- Früheisenzeit, 2019
Dieser Artikel beschäftigt sich vornehmlich mit theoretischen Ansätzen zur Analyse sozialer Struk... more Dieser Artikel beschäftigt sich vornehmlich mit theoretischen Ansätzen zur Analyse sozialer Strukturen im spätbronze- bis früheisenzeitlichen Sardinien anhand des archäologischen Befunds. Dabei spielen sowohl die interkulturelle Kommunikation innerhalb eines Netzwerkes von Kontaktregionen als auch gemeinschaftliche Rituale an öffentlichen Heiligtümern und anderen architektonischen Bezugspunkten eine wichtige Rolle. Weiterhin sind dezentrale Tendenzen innerhalb der vernetzten sardischen Gemeinschaften von Bedeutung.
Zunächst wird die Verwendung grundlegender Begriffe (z. B. Kultur, Kontaktformen, Orientalisierung, Ethnizität) im Rahmen des Themas geklärt und die anarchistische Theorie als geeignetes Analysewerkzeug zur Untersuchung dezentraler Gesellschaften ohne konsolidierte Hierarchien vorgeschlagen. Dabei sind vor allem Konzepte wie freiwillige Kooperation, Netzwerkorganisation, der gemeinschaftliche Konsum von Produktionsüberschüssen sowie eine auf lokaler Autonomie basierte Dezentralität der Siedlungsgemeinschaften von Bedeutung. Nach einer Kurzbeschreibung der chronologischen Situation im westlichen Mittelmeer und der Entwicklung immer intensiverer Fernkontakte zwischen bestimmten Regionen mit Bezug zu Sardinien werden im Anschluss die archäologischen Befunde der Insel mit Relevanz zur Sozialarchäologie vorgestellt. Dazu gehören explizit die großen Heiligtümer mit den wohlbekannten Bronzefiguren. Diese kulturellen und materiellen Ausdrucksformen entstanden kurz nach technologischen und demografischen Veränderungen, welche die neue Kontaktsituation mit sich brachte. Sie lösten die Nuraghen, Megalithgräber sowie den Ahnenkult als soziale Bezugspunkte ab. Schließlich wird auf die Auswirkungen fortgesetzter interkultureller Kommunikation auf die Sozialgefüge der sardischen Gesellschaft eingegangen.
Universität Freiburg, Institut für Archäologische Wissenschaften, Abteilung Urgeschichte, Belfort... more Universität Freiburg, Institut für Archäologische Wissenschaften, Abteilung Urgeschichte, Belfortstrasse 22, Freiburg 79098, Germany, Email: [email protected] After the collapse of most early states in the East around 1200 BC, parts of the western Mediterranean experienced technological progress and demographic rise, apparently without adapting forms of hierarchic political organization. A very good example is Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age nuragic Sardinia, which had been connected to eastern trade networks since Mycenaean times, and developed into one of the most important venues for culture contact and exchange in the West after 1200 BC. However, its rich archaeological record, including figurines, architecture, sanctuaries, villages and tombs, does neither indicate the existence of ‘elite’ groups, nor does it show any traces of a hierarchic society. This article examines the possibility that a non-hierarchical form of socio-political organization devoid of elites developed to a high level of cultural complexity and progress on the island. Other important aspects are the role of immigration as an integrant in nuragic society, considering comparable situations of non-hierarchic politics in ethnography and history, as well as theoretical approaches to forms of social organization. It is concluded that socio-economic development does not necessarily require a centralized political authority.(Received April 11 2013)(Revised August 06 2013)(Accepted August 25 2013)
IMPORTANT ! PLEASE NOTE:
This paper represents in some parts an OUTDATED state of research! For ... more IMPORTANT ! PLEASE NOTE:
This paper represents in some parts an OUTDATED state of research! For revised results on the SARDINIAN BRONZETTI see:
"Intercultural communications and shared iconography: the chronology of the Sardinian bronze figurines and the western Iberian stelae", by R. Araque Gonzalez in the BOOK ChAPTER section here or at https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.17193499
For an extensive revision: see CHAPTER III in "Inter-cultural communications and iconography in the western Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age", by R. Araque Gonzalez in the BOOKS section here or at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18327906
Thank you for using and citing these up-to-date revisions of my former results from 2012!
Book chapters by Ralph Araque Gonzalez
The Iberian Stelae of the Final Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age: Iconography, Technology and the Transfer of Knowledge Between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 2025
This study investigates the transportation and integration of Western Iberian stelae within Late ... more This study investigates the transportation and integration of Western Iberian stelae within Late Bronze Age landscapes through GIS-based spatial analyses. Leveraging extensive spatial data from “The Iberian stelae of the Final Bronze Age” interdisciplinary research project, we focus on the movement of stelae from their potential quarries, determined through provenance studies, to their chosen places. We explore the cultural and territorial significance of these monuments between the Tagus River and the Iberian Central System. The analysis utilizes Least-Cost Analysis, employing Tobler’s hiking function to create Least-Cost Surfaces, and includes Least-Cost Paths and Focal Mobility Networks to trace potential routes. Topographic profiles of these paths are examined to determine and compare distance, slope, and walking time. Labour estimates and visibility and accessibility analyses further contextualize the complex and dynamic relationship between paths, quarries, and stelae within the Late Bronze Age landscape. Our findings shed light on how quarries were procured and how the transportation routes integrated into the existing natural and cultural landscape, offering new insights into the spatial dynamics of Late Bronze Age communities. Lastly, this study underscores the methodological potential of GIS in multi-scalar Landscape Archaeology analyses.
The Iberian Stelae of the Final Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age - Iconography, Technology and the Transfer of Knowledge Between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 2025
This chapter will first present the stelae and the rocks that
have been used for their making fro... more This chapter will first present the stelae and the rocks that
have been used for their making from the two core study
areas of this project, namely the Portuguese Beira, with a
focus on the Beira Interior, and the Spanish Extremadura,
with a focus on the Zújar valley. The geology of both regions
will be taken into consideration for the analyses. The
material properties of the lithotypes, distances between stelae
and rock outcrops, as well as landscape settings are considered,
all of which played a role in the choices made by
prehistoric artisans. The approach and results from petrological
studies will be presented and the results will be discussed.
This showed selective patterns for the choice of particular
lithotypes for stelae. Finally, the implications of
these material selections with relevance to the underlying
knowledge of materials and technologies that had to be
applied for rock art making in FBA-EIA Iberia will be
evaluated from a geo-archaeological perspective.
The Iberian Stelae of the Final Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age Iconography, Technology and the Transfer of Knowledge Between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 2025
The electronic version of this book is available in open access at editorial.csic.es and is distr... more The electronic version of this book is available in open access at editorial.csic.es and is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license. Complete information about the license can be consulted at licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. This license affects only the original material in the book. The use of material from other sources (indicated in the references), such as diagrams, illustrations, photographs or text fragments, it will be required permission from the copyright holders. The news, assertions and opinions contained in this work are the sole responsibility of the author(s). The publisher is only responsible for the scientific interest of the publication.
The Iberian Stelae of the Final Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age Iconography, Technology and the Transfer of Knowledge Between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 2025
The western Iberian stelae from the Final Bronze Age and
Early Iron Age are highly distinguished ... more The western Iberian stelae from the Final Bronze Age and
Early Iron Age are highly distinguished rock art monuments
that have been extensively studied regarding their
iconography, typology, chronology, geographical distribution,
and multifarious socio-cultural interpretations. Despite
the many quotations of them as representative archaeological
finds, technological, traceological, and material studies
have only rarely been conducted. As a consequence, the actual
tools and carving techniques have previously not been
determined and the respective technologies have largely remained
unexplained and unexplored. Hence, systematic
studies of ancient stone-working techniques are still in their
beginnings and remain a desideratum for archaeological research
on rock art. In this chapter, the results from material
analyses and archaeological experiments in order to assess
the functionality of tools on the rocks used for the Iberian
stelae will be presented and discussed. This approach provides
new insights into the tool box of protohistoric Iberian
craftspeople, and also holds surprises on the quality of then
innovative materials, namely steel chisels.
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Books by Ralph Araque Gonzalez
This combined methodology goes beyond the traditional study of the motifs and their compositions on the stelae, seeking to re-evaluate the rock supports and the reasons for their choice, explore the technologies used for their production, and discover the symbolic significance of these stelae for the communities who created them. Eventually, this research considers the perspectives of stonemasonry, bronze and iron met-allurgy, and technology transfer. This has resulted in new insights on the social and cultural implications of the Western Iberian stelae, the emergence of early Iberian iron metallurgy, technology transfer, innovation, and intercultural contacts between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic at the dawn of history.
Ralph Araque Gonzalez
397 pages, 214 illustrations and 20 tables.
The symbolic images of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (c. 1300-525 BC) that were widespread in the central and western Mediterranean offer a broad base for the understanding of the inter-cultural communications and the alleged spread of ideas and knowledge throughout the area. This book comprises the first comprehensive, comparative analysis of iconographical records from Sardinia, Southwest Iberia, Corsica and Sicily within their archaeological context of the intense contacts that had emerged in the Mediterranean during the Bronze Age.
Settlement archaeology, monument building, funeral rites and religious ritual as well as local economic approaches in these four regions, which were connected by a network of anchorages, are also examined and compared. The communitarian organization as well as the allocation of power within prehistoric societies are analyzed through alternative theoretical methods considering heterarchy and complex anarchic societies. In this context, sometimes dramatic socio-political changes in the Early Iron Age, which further resulted in changes in local art and symbolism, can be explained through manipulative strategies, intensified communications or – to the contrary – dissociation.
This volume contains comprehensive, fully illustrated data on 245 Sardinian anthropomorphic bronze figurines as well as references to 216 zoomorphic bronzetti and 146 boat models. Furthermore, 118 western Iberian stelae have been analyzed in detail and are contrasted with the completely diverging motives of the Iberian Early Iron Age. Finally, the statue-menhirs of Corsica and the figurative art of Sicily complete the material basis of this study. This pioneering work provides chronological data, iconographical and archaeological analyses as well as distribution maps and therefore offers an invaluable database for Mediterranean archaeology.
Settlement archaeology, monument building, funeral rites and religious ritual as well as local economic approaches in these four regions, which were connected by a network of anchorages, are also examined and compared. The communitarian organization as well as the allocation of power within prehistoric societies are analyzed through alternative theoretical methods considering heterarchy and complex anarchic societies. In this context, sometimes dramatic socio-political changes in the Early Iron Age, which further resulted in changes in local art and symbolism, can be explained through manipulative strategies, intensified communications or – to the contrary – dissociation.
This volume contains comprehensive, fully illustrated data on 245 Sardinian anthropomorphic bronze figurines as well as references to 216 zoomorphic bronzetti and 146 boat models. Furthermore, 118 western Iberian stelae have been analyzed in detail and are contrasted with the completely diverging motives of the Iberian Early Iron Age. Finally, the statue-menhirs of Corsica and the figurative art of Sicily complete the material basis of this study. This pioneering work provides chronological data, iconographical and archaeological analyses as well as distribution maps and therefore offers an invaluable database for Mediterranean archaeology.
available at Verlag Marie Leidorf, http://vml.de and http://vml.de/e/detail.php?ISBN=978-3-89646-797-3
Papers by Ralph Araque Gonzalez
The south-western Iberian stelae from the Final Bronze Age (FBA) and Early Iron Age (EIA) have long been the centre of archaeological interest. These monuments show representations of human and animal figures, objects such as weapons, ornaments and chariots. Moreover, they provide insights into prehistoric stone working and sculpting techniques. On the downside, petrological studies of the rocks and consequent reflections on suitable tools are still the exception. Due to the lack of analysis and technological studies, this research will put emphasis on a multidisciplinary approach involving petrographic and metallurgic analyses, complemented by experimental archaeology.
Firstly, an accurate lithological determination of stelae from Capilla (Spain) has been established with petrographic methods. According to the results, two slabs for replications of stelae were obtained from the identified mono-mineral quartz-sandstone (“quartzite”) outcrop. The experiment involved the trial of chisels made from all expedient materials that were available in the FBA-EIA by a professional stonemason. Considering that such extremely hard rocks require robust tools for carving, a long ignored iron chisel from the FBA site of Rocha do Vigio (Portugal) was studied with metallography and exposed heterogeneous, however surprisingly high-carbon steel. The analysed rocks are amongst the hardest that can be used for sculpting, and in the course of the experiment, bronze and lithic tools could be discarded. The only tool that showed an effect was the replication of the steel chisel from Rocha do Vigio with a hardened edge. The distinct work traces were compared to the original monuments. We hypothesize that the production of carbon steel as well as its hardening were possibly already known at the FBA-EIA transition in Iberia. Hence, only the access to iron technology allowed for the making of stelae from the lithotypes that were frequently used in the Zújar basin around the municipality of Capilla.
Zunächst wird die Verwendung grundlegender Begriffe (z. B. Kultur, Kontaktformen, Orientalisierung, Ethnizität) im Rahmen des Themas geklärt und die anarchistische Theorie als geeignetes Analysewerkzeug zur Untersuchung dezentraler Gesellschaften ohne konsolidierte Hierarchien vorgeschlagen. Dabei sind vor allem Konzepte wie freiwillige Kooperation, Netzwerkorganisation, der gemeinschaftliche Konsum von Produktionsüberschüssen sowie eine auf lokaler Autonomie basierte Dezentralität der Siedlungsgemeinschaften von Bedeutung. Nach einer Kurzbeschreibung der chronologischen Situation im westlichen Mittelmeer und der Entwicklung immer intensiverer Fernkontakte zwischen bestimmten Regionen mit Bezug zu Sardinien werden im Anschluss die archäologischen Befunde der Insel mit Relevanz zur Sozialarchäologie vorgestellt. Dazu gehören explizit die großen Heiligtümer mit den wohlbekannten Bronzefiguren. Diese kulturellen und materiellen Ausdrucksformen entstanden kurz nach technologischen und demografischen Veränderungen, welche die neue Kontaktsituation mit sich brachte. Sie lösten die Nuraghen, Megalithgräber sowie den Ahnenkult als soziale Bezugspunkte ab. Schließlich wird auf die Auswirkungen fortgesetzter interkultureller Kommunikation auf die Sozialgefüge der sardischen Gesellschaft eingegangen.
This paper represents in some parts an OUTDATED state of research! For revised results on the SARDINIAN BRONZETTI see:
"Intercultural communications and shared iconography: the chronology of the Sardinian bronze figurines and the western Iberian stelae", by R. Araque Gonzalez in the BOOK ChAPTER section here or at https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.17193499
For an extensive revision: see CHAPTER III in "Inter-cultural communications and iconography in the western Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age", by R. Araque Gonzalez in the BOOKS section here or at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18327906
Thank you for using and citing these up-to-date revisions of my former results from 2012!
Book chapters by Ralph Araque Gonzalez
have been used for their making from the two core study
areas of this project, namely the Portuguese Beira, with a
focus on the Beira Interior, and the Spanish Extremadura,
with a focus on the Zújar valley. The geology of both regions
will be taken into consideration for the analyses. The
material properties of the lithotypes, distances between stelae
and rock outcrops, as well as landscape settings are considered,
all of which played a role in the choices made by
prehistoric artisans. The approach and results from petrological
studies will be presented and the results will be discussed.
This showed selective patterns for the choice of particular
lithotypes for stelae. Finally, the implications of
these material selections with relevance to the underlying
knowledge of materials and technologies that had to be
applied for rock art making in FBA-EIA Iberia will be
evaluated from a geo-archaeological perspective.
Early Iron Age are highly distinguished rock art monuments
that have been extensively studied regarding their
iconography, typology, chronology, geographical distribution,
and multifarious socio-cultural interpretations. Despite
the many quotations of them as representative archaeological
finds, technological, traceological, and material studies
have only rarely been conducted. As a consequence, the actual
tools and carving techniques have previously not been
determined and the respective technologies have largely remained
unexplained and unexplored. Hence, systematic
studies of ancient stone-working techniques are still in their
beginnings and remain a desideratum for archaeological research
on rock art. In this chapter, the results from material
analyses and archaeological experiments in order to assess
the functionality of tools on the rocks used for the Iberian
stelae will be presented and discussed. This approach provides
new insights into the tool box of protohistoric Iberian
craftspeople, and also holds surprises on the quality of then
innovative materials, namely steel chisels.