Contract Law

1. La divisone interna dell'obbligazione solidale e il diritto di regresso del condebitore adempiente.-2. Le obbligazioni di cooperazione e di liberazione tra i condebitori in solido.-3. La gestione di un affare "parzialmente" altrui da parte del condebitore adempiente e il diritto di regresso a suo favore.-4. La gestione di un affare "completamente" altrui da parte del condebitore adempiente e la surrogazione legale a suo favore: gli effetti giuridici.-5. Segue: La fattispecie.-6. La prescrizione del diritto di regresso e la sua decorrenza.

Perkembangan teknologi digital saat ini memberikan banyak kemudahan dalam kehidupan masyarakat. Berbagai aktivitas dapat dilakukan dengan cepat melalui internet, mulai dari komunikasi, hiburan, hingga layanan keuangan digital. Namun, di balik kemudahan tersebut, muncul ancaman baru yang semakin meresahkan, yaitu maraknya judi online (judol) dan pinjaman online ilegal (pinjol ilegal). Fenomena ini tidak hanya berdampak pada kondisi ekonomi masyarakat, tetapi juga dapat merugikan lingkungan sekitar.

The rule of Hadley v. Baxendale is usually described, in the economic theory of contract, as a default rule that excludes the recoverability of consequential damages and, in particular, as the paradigmatic example of a penalty default rule. On this reading, by excluding the recoverability of consequential damages, the rule requires promisees who seek broader coverage to contract around the default through a different contractual clause. Such a rule would be unwelcome to the majority of promisees, who would prefer a rule of full liability. This Article argues that this reconstruction fails to capture the actual structure of the Hadley rule. The rule does not exclude the recoverability of consequential damages; it is, instead, internally articulated into two modules: an ordinary module, which covers the losses arising naturally from breach according to the ordinary course of events, and an extended module, which covers special losses where the promisor had been informed of them by the promisee, or otherwise had reason to know the circumstances that made them foreseeable. Rereading Hadley yields a theoretical consequence of general scope. It makes it possible to isolate a new type of default rule, here termed the "modular default rule." By this expression is meant a rule that contains within itself several operative modules. There is a standard module that governs the ordinary case and operates without any action by the parties. There is, then, an extended module that is triggered when the promisee renders known or knowable to the promisor private circumstances capable of justifying a different liability regime. Communication is the condition that allows the default itself to extend its effects. No conventional clause inserted by the parties into the contract is necessary to produce this consequence. The Article is thus characterized by two principal contributions. First, it proposes a rereading of the Hadley rule as a default rule that includes consequential damages where communication is present, rather than as a rule that excludes them. On the theoretical plane, it introduces the figure of modular default rules, whose structure appears discernible in many default rules present across legal systems, which have not so far been traced back to a unified model.

A cláusula de não-indenizar é instrumento para alocação de riscos negociais. Seu espaço de excelência é contratual, excluindo não a responsabilidade, não os deveres originário e sucessivo, mas apenas a consequência (a indenização). No Direito brasileiro, respeitados os requisitos de validade que circundam a autonomia negocial, é admissível o pacto adjeto de exoneração da indenização. O texto tem caráter qualitativo e prescritivo, utilizando de fontes doutrinárias, judiciais e legais para desenvolver os conceitos de cláusulas de não-indenizar e penal, bem como a inserção da primeira na alocação de riscos e no âmbito dos danos extrapatrimoniais.

L’articolo indaga la progressiva espansione dell’interesse economico del produttore lungo l’intero ciclo di vita del bene, attraverso fenomeni di finanziarizzazione e di servitization. Tale dinamica implica un arretramento del ruolo della proprietà a favore dell’attribuzione del diritto di godimento della funzione espressa dal bene.
Pur mossi da logiche originariamente orientate all’efficienza economica, tali modelli possono produrre, in una eterogenesi dei fini, esiti convergenti con i principi dell’economia circolare, incentivando progettazione durevole e riparabile, eco‑design, riduzione dell’obsolescenza programmata e internalizzazione dei costi di fine vita del prodotto. Non mancano, però, i profili critici, tra i quali il sorgere di una dipendenza funzionale del cliente, la compressione di fatto della libertà contrattuale e della contendibilità del mercato, la difficoltà di valutare ex ante il costo complessivo dei servizi e i rischi di espropriazione economica dei contraenti più deboli in un contesto regolatorio ancora inadeguato.

The article investigates the gradual expansion of the producer’s economic interest throughout the entire life cycle of the good – from manufacture to disposal – through the dual processes of financialization and servitization. This evolution marks a retreat of ownership as the central juridical category, in favor of access to the functional utility embodied in the good.
Although initially driven by considerations of economic efficiency, these models may, through unintended consequences, produce outcomes that align with the normative principles of the circular economy. They tend to encourage product durability and reparability, eco‑design, the reduction of planned obsolescence, and the internalization of end‑of‑life costs. Nonetheless, significant normative and structural concerns persist, including the deepening of functional dependency on the part of users, a de facto compression of contractual autonomy and market contestability, the difficulty of assessing the overall cost of services ex ante, and the risk of economic dispossession for weaker parties within a still inadequate regulatory framework.

Η παρούσα συμβολή αποσκοπεί στο να συζητήσει τα εγειρό-
μενα νομικά και δεοντολογικά ζητήματα από τη χρήση του
ChatGPT στην εκπαίδευση και να προτείνει τρόπους χρήσε-
ως της νέας τεχνολογίας στην επιστημονική κοινότητα. Μετά
από την ορολογική διασάφηση συζητείται στην πρώτη ενότη-
τα αν η χρήση της νέας τεχνολογίας οδηγεί σε λογοκλοπή, δι-
ερευνάται ποιος έχει την πνευματική ιδιοκτησία του κειμένου
και ποιος τη νομική ευθύνη σε περίπτωση ανακρίβειας του.
Στη συνέχεια τίθεται το ερώτημα αν η νέα τεχνολογία είναι φο-
ρέας του δικαιώματος στην ελευθερία εκφράσεως. Ιδιαίτερη
έμφαση αποδίδεται στο αν η νέα τεχνολογία συνάδει με τη νο-
μοθεσία περί προστασίας προσωπικών δεδομένων και κυ-
ρίως με τις βασικές αρχές επεξεργασίας προσωπικών δεδο-
μένων, όπως είναι η αρχή της διαφάνειας, της ακρίβειας και
του σκοπού της επεξεργασίας. Το τελικό ερώτημα που τίθεται
είναι εάν το ChatGPT θέτει σε κίνδυνο τον φιλελεύθερο χαρα-
κτήρα του δημοκρατικού πολιτεύματος εξαιτίας της επιβολής
μιας «δικτατορίας» του μέσου όρου στην επιστήμη, της παρο-
χής συγκεκριμένης, προμελετημένης, ελεγμένης γνώσεως. Η
δεύτερη ενότητα αναζητεί ποια πρέπει να είναι η δέουσα στά-
ση της επιστημονικής κοινότητας. Γίνεται δεκτό ότι η νέα τε-
χνολογία μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε αποψίλωση του οικοδομήμα-
τος της γνώσεως, υποστηρίζεται όμως ότι η απαγόρευσή της
συνιστά μια τεχνοφοβική και ουτοπική προσέγγιση. Αντιθέ-
τως προτείνεται η ελεγμένη αξιοποίηση της νέας τεχνολογίας.

Some contract theorists favor specific performance as the appropriate remedy for contract breach. According to ethical theorists, specific performance reinforces the moral obligation that promises should be kept. Some economists argue that specific performance promotes efficient contract bargaining. This Article challenges this conventional wisdom, showing that moral evaluations and the willingness to bargain are themselves strongly affected by whether specific performance is available as a default remedy or not. Our insight is based on a novel, original empirical study. This Article presents the results of an experiment that measures and compares decisions and motivations involved with the performance, breach, and enforcement of valid legal contracts that participants signed with each other. We provided one group of participants with a default remedy of specific performance while another group could prevent the breach of contract without relying on a legal default. We observed that, when specific performance was the default remedy, participants decided to sacrifice a substantial part of their earnings in the experiment in order to obstruct an efficient breach. Our results indicate that the specific performance default triggered conflicting moral intuitions about contract breach among contracting parties. Specific performance made the ethical norm to adhere to the contract more salient to promisees, while promisors focused on the efficiency of the breach.

Some contract theorists favor specific performance as the appropriate remedy for contract breach. According to ethical theorists, specific performance reinforces the moral obligation that promises should be kept. Some economists argue that specific performance promotes efficient contract bargaining. This Article challenges this conventional wisdom, showing that moral evaluations and the willingness to bargain are themselves strongly affected by whether specific performance is available as a default remedy or not. Our insight is based on a novel, original empirical study. This Article presents the results of an experiment that measures and compares decisions and motivations involved with the performance, breach, and enforcement of valid legal contracts that participants signed with each other. We provided one group of participants with a default remedy of specific performance while another group could prevent the breach of contract without relying on a legal default. We observed that, when specific performance was the default remedy, participants decided to sacrifice a substantial part of their earnings in the experiment in order to obstruct an efficient breach. Our results indicate that the specific performance default triggered conflicting moral intuitions about contract breach among contracting parties. Specific performance made the ethical norm to adhere to the contract more salient to promisees, while promisors focused on the efficiency of the breach.

Doctrina práctica La necesaria función aflictivo-consolatoria... Doctrina práctica La inoponibilidad de la simulación de acto jurídico... Un debate persistente sobre las funciones del derecho de daños An ongoing debate on the functions of tort law

Various strands of research have focused on the applicability of GenAI and LLMs in the legal field. Some scholars have investigated the quality of legal translations performed by chatbots, although there is still a paucity of studies addressing the employment of legal chatbots for legal translation purposes. This paper wishes to address this epistemological lacuna. To this aim, an extract of an Italian contratto di mutuo (“loan agreement”) is translated automatically into English by employing three field-related GenAI tools, namely, AptusAI, ChatLaw, and FreeLawChat. A corpus-assisted translation of the same source text is used as a benchmark through which the automated translations are assessed. The findings bring to the fore a host of shortcomings in the automatic target texts, ranging from infrequent language patterns, literal translations of formulae, wrong collocations, informal language, and omissions of phrases. Therefore, the paper highlights the importance of human expert oversight to guarantee accuracy.

This paper examines the institution of mandatory defence of the accused in criminal proceedings as one of the fundamental guarantees of the right to a fair trial. Starting from the specific procedural position of the accused and the objective inability to exercise the right of defence effectively without professional legal assistance, the study analyses the substantive role of defence counsel as a key element in ensuring equality of arms and adversarial proceedings before an impartial court. The analysis draws on the Albanian constitutional, conventional, and criminal procedural framework, with particular focus on Article 49 of the Criminal Procedure Code. Within this framework, the 2017 amendments are of particular importance, as they not only expanded the scope of mandatory defence but also influenced the manner in which these cases are approached and applied in practice. The paper examines in detail each case provided by law, highlighting the underlying guarantee-oriented rationale, particularly in relation to the most vulnerable subjects of criminal proceedings, the seriousness of the criminal offence, and the critical stages of the process. A substantial part of the study examines the effectiveness of defence in cases involving court-appointed counsel, in light of the standards developed in the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights and Albanian judicial practice. In this regard, the analysis underscores the distinction

Taking as its guiding thread the crisis of individual autonomy in twentieth-century civil law, the article examines Filippo Vassalli’s reflections on the legal principles. Vassalli interprets the expansion of State intervention as the progressive politicisation and administrative transformation of private relations, capable of turning subjective rights and property into instruments serving public ends. Within this framework, legal principles acquire a decisive role: they are not merely interpretative criteria, but a possible safeguard against the subordination of law to politics. Yet Vassalli rejects both statist legalism and abstract natural law, grounding principles instead in the historical, comparative, and common tradition of European legal civilisation. Particular attention is devoted to the Charter of Labour, whose normative significance Vassalli acknowledges while seeking to neutralise its fascist-political matrix within the broader evolution of twentieth-century law. Nothing, however, changed with the fall of Fascism. To a disenchanted Vassalli, the Republican Constitution merely confirmed the the advance of the publicisation of private law, making the recovery of the autonomy of civil law and legal scholarship all the more urgent.

En el comentario se analizan los aspectos materiales y procesales de la pretensión de impugnación del acuerdos asociativos, a partir de la posición desarrollada por el Quinto Pleno Casatorio Civil y los aportes doctrinarios relativos al tema.

Պարտավորությունների կատարումն այս կամ այն եղանակով ապահովելը եղել և շարունակում է տարածված և կիրառելի մնալ Հայաստանում: Վերջին շրջանում մեծ ծավալների են հասնում նաև ֆիզիկական անձանց սնանկության դեպքերը, որոնք՝ կախված դրանց ելքից, գործնական և իրավական բազմաթիվ հարցեր են առաջացնում: Սույն հոդվածում անդրադարձել ենք քաղաքացիաիրավական հարաբերություններում հաճախ հանդիպող մի երևույթի, երբ բանկի հանդեպ իր պարտավորության կատարումը երաշխավորությամբ ապահոված ֆիզիկական անձ վարկառուի սնանկության գործը պարտավորությունների կատարումից ազատելով ավարտելու մասին վճիռ է կայացվում, որն ուժի մեջ մտնելուց հետո առաջ է գալիս երաշխավորության դադարեցման հարց:
Հոդվածը եզրահանգում է, որ առկա է օրենսդրական բաց. ոլորտը կարգավորող օրենսդրությունը հստակ չի կարգավորում այն հարցը, թե վերը նկարագրված իրավիճակում երաշխավորությունը համարվելու՞ է դադարած, թե՞ բանկերը հիմնական պարտավորության կատարումը երաշխավորից պահանջելու իրավունք, այնուամենայնիվ, պետք է ունենան: Մեր համոզմամբ՝ նշված իրավիճակում երաշխավորության պարտավորությունը չպետք է դադարեցվի: Փաստ է, որ առկա օրենսդրական բացը հակասական պրակտիկայի ձևավորման է հանգեցրել՝ իրավական անորոշ դաշտ ստեղծելով:

O objetivo deste trabalho é demonstrar que a intromissão estatal no âmbito dos contratos de adesão, a despeito da necessidade (idealmente  residual) desse atuar,   vem   contribuindo  para   a   perpetuação de um consumidor politicamente  frágil que, despreparado  para   defender seus próprios interesses,  muitas vezes se vale da suposta “fraqueza” para tirar vantagem.

Responsabilità per attività pericolose – Navigazione aerea – Attivi-tà intrinsecamente pericolosa – Esclusione.
Responsabilità extracontrattuale – Responsabilità per fatto altrui – Presupposti.
1. Il contesto. – 2. La ricerca del danneggiato per il regime più favorevole. – 3. Il rapporto fra codice della navigazione e codice civile nell’interpretazione dei giudici statunitensi. – 4. L’impostazione delle Corti statunitensi. – 5. La ricerca del responsabile che meglio possa rispondere nella vicenda conclusa con la decisione in epigrafe. – 6. Il cumulo di azione contrattuale e azione aquiliana. – 7. La pericolosità del trasporto aereo (e delle attività di navigazione aerea in generale).

Las cláusulas generales son instrumentos normativos de apertura del ordenamiento jurídico, diseñadas para afrontar situaciones no previstas por el legislador sin quebrar su coherencia interna. Este estudio, desde un enfoque dogmático y comparado, examina sus antecedentes, sus características, sus funciones y su relación con figuras afines, así como su conexión con valores jurídicos, reglas y principios rectores del derecho. La metodología empleada se basa en un análisis crítico de doctrina y legislación nacional e internacional en el que se identifican puntos de convergencia y divergencia en su tratamiento. Los resultados muestran que, al estar sustentadas en conceptos jurídicos indeterminados, las cláusulas generales otorgan al juez un margen de apreciación guiado por principios como la equidad, la justicia y la solidaridad, lo cual permite una función integradora y adaptativa frente a cambios sociales, económicos y tecnológicos. Se constata, además, que actúan como límites frente a conductas formalmente amparadas por la ley, pero contrarias a su espíritu, como sucede con la proscripción del abuso del derecho. La discusión destaca que, aunque su amplitud favorece la adaptabilidad normativa, su aplicación sin criterios técnicos sólidos puede comprometer la seguridad jurídica. En conclusión, las cláusulas generales se erigen como herramientas esenciales para armonizar la estabilidad normativa con el dinamismo jurídico, garantizando la coherencia y la eficacia del sistema ante la complejidad social contemporánea.

This filing is an Order to Show Cause issued by the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington in reciprocal disciplinary proceedings arising from the May 7, 2026 disbarment of Washington attorney Scott Erik Stafne by the Washington State Supreme Court.
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Acting pursuant to Local Rule 83.3(c), the federal district court ordered Stafne to demonstrate within thirty days why reciprocal discipline should not also be imposed in federal court. The Order further requires production of the “entire record” from the Washington State Bar Association and Washington Supreme Court proceedings unless the Court is persuaded that a lesser submission will suffice.
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The reciprocal discipline proceedings arise from litigation involving constitutional challenges to judicial authority, Article III adjudicatory power, judicial neutrality, party presentation, foreclosure-related litigation, and sanctions imposed against counsel representing homeowners and property owners in Washington State and federal courts.
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More broadly, the Order highlights an escalating institutional conflict concerning: 1) whether attorneys may be professionally sanctioned for advancing structural constitutional challenges to judicial authority; 2)
whether unresolved constitutional and jurisdictional claims may properly form the basis for reciprocal discipline; 3) the relationship between lawyer independence and sanctions imposed in politically or institutionally sensitive litigation; and 4) whether constitutional legitimacy ultimately depends upon genuinely independent courts adjudicating the actual judicial inquiries presented by litigants through the adversarial process.
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The proceedings therefore present not merely an attorney discipline matter, but an ongoing public dispute concerning judicial legitimacy, constitutional structure, access to justice, and the role of citizen discernment within republican government.

En este capítulo, tratamos acerca de las nociones de «sentimiento» y «donación» en la obra Caminos del conocimiento de Dios de Edith Stein. En ella, la autora trata fenomenológicamente acerca de la experiencia de Dios, entendiéndola como sentimiento de la presencia de Dios. De esta manera, la filósofa vincula de manera directa a la experiencia religiosa con la afectividad humana, expandiendo con ello la noción de intuición a partir de lo dado en persona.

Սույն հոդվածը նվիրված է իրավունքի տեսության և պրակտիկայի բարդագույն ու
վիճահարույց ինստիտուտներից մեկի՝ սուբյեկտիվ իրավունքի չարաշահման իրավական
բնույթի և ժամանակակից կարգավորումների համակարգային վերլուծությանը։
Հետազոտության շրջանակներում հեղինակը քննարկում է իրավունքի չարաշահման և
դասական իրավախախտման տարբերակման հիմնախնդիրը՝ շեշտադրելով իրավունքի
իրականացման նպատակային և գործառութային կողմերը։ Աշխատանքում առանձնակի
ուշադրության են արժանանում սուբյեկտիվ իրավունքի չարաշահման արգելքի
սահմանադրաիրավական հիմքերը և դրանց արտացոլումը ՀՀ մասնավոր ու հանրային
իրավունքի առանձին ճյուղերում (քաղաքացիական, աշխատանքային, ընտանեկան և
ընտրական իրավունք)։ Համեմատաիրավական մեթոդի կիրառմամբ վերլուծվում են
այնպիսի յուրահատուկ իրավական կառուցակարգեր, ինչպիսիք են «շիկանան» և
«օրենքի շրջանցումը»՝ վերջինիս որպես չարաշահման տեսակ դասակարգելու
նպատակահարմարության համատեքստում։ Հոդվածում հեղինակը հանգում է այն
եզրակացությանը, որ իրավունքի չարաշահմանը հակազդելու արդյունավետությունը
մեծապես կախված է դատական հայեցողության շրջանակներում «բարեխղճության» և
«ողջամտության» սկզբունքների ճշգրիտ կիրառումից։ Վերլուծվում են նաև չարաշահման
համար նախատեսված իրավական հետևանքները՝ իրավունքի պաշտպանության
մերժումից մինչև սուբյեկտիվ իրավունքից զրկում՝ ընդգծելով դրանց կանխարգելիչ և
հավասարակշռող գործառույթը ժամանակակից իրավակարգում։

ይህ ጽሑፍ ዲሞክራሲን ከትርጉም፣ አጀማመርና ዝግመተ ለውጥ አንጻር በመግለጽ፣ ከክርስትናና ከእስልምና ትምህርቶች ጋር ያለውን ዝምድና ያስረዳል። መጽሐፍ ቅዱስና ቁርአን “ዲሞክራሲ” የሚለውን ቃል በቀጥታ ባይጠቀሙም፣ እኩልነት፣ ክብር፣ ሹራ (ምክክር)፣ የሥልጣን ውስንነትና ማኅበራዊ ፍትሕ ለዲሞክራሲ መሠረታዊ መርሆች መሆናቸውን ያስገነዝባል። ጽሑፉ የዲሞክራሲን ጥንካሬዎች (ተጠያቂነት፣ ነጻነት፣ ሰላማዊ የሥልጣን ሽግግር) እና ድክመቶች (የብዙሃኑ አምባገነንነት፣ ፖለቲካ አለመረጋጋት፣ ብቃት የሌላቸው መሪዎች መመረጥ) በማነጻጸር ያቀርባል። በመጨረሻም፣ ፍጹም የሆነ የአስተዳደር ሥርዓት ባይኖርም፣ ዲሞክራሲ ከሃይማኖታዊና ሥነ ምግባራዊ እሴቶች ጋር ሲጣጣም ለማኅበረሰብ ሰላምና ልማት አስተዋጽኦ እንደሚያደርግ ያረጋግጣል።

This public letter reflects upon conscience, citizenship, adjudication, and institutional legitimacy following the author’s disbarment from the practice of law in Washington State. Rather than framing the event primarily as personal loss, the letter explores themes involving discernment, constitutional duty, judicial legitimacy, and the continuing obligation of ordinary citizens to examine whether justice visibly appears to be occurring within modern institutions. Drawing upon the famous exchange between Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, the letter situates these reflections within a broader American tradition of conscience-based civic inquiry.

The paper offers a reflection on abuses of autonomy in the prospect of leaving nullity as typical
and extreme remedy. The investigated area is wide, and the possible remedies are varied; they
are examined in their meaning, scope and appropriateness, bearing in mind the well-known
problem of the contractual justice. Finally, the Author proposes, as a preventive protection, the
refusal to comply and a related new objection, ‘the objection of pre-contractual tort’.

This article examines the evolving role of corporate law within the energy sector, arguing that corporate law functions not merely as a regulatory mechanism but as a foundational structure through which energy projects are designed, financed, and governed. It explores how legal instruments such as Production Sharing Contracts (PSCs), Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs), shareholder agreements, and financing arrangements shape the commercial viability and operational control of energy projects. The article further analyses the interconnected nature of energy transactions, emphasizing risk allocation as a central feature of corporate energy law, particularly in relation to regulatory uncertainty, market volatility, and environmental liabilities.

In addition, the paper considers the inevitability of disputes in energy projects due to their complexity, duration, and cross-border dimensions. It highlights the growing importance of arbitration and multi-tiered dispute resolution mechanisms as preventive tools embedded within contractual frameworks to enhance predictability and investor confidence. Ultimately, the article advances the view that corporate law in the energy sector performs a preventive and strategic function by anticipating conflict, structuring commercial relationships, and managing risk proactively. It concludes that the modern energy lawyer operates not only as a legal adviser but also as a legal architect responsible for designing sustainable legal and commercial systems within the global energy industry.

Autor analizuje problematykę kredytów mieszkaniowych indeksowanych oraz denominowanych w walutach obcych 2 . Udzielano je w Polsce osobom nieosiągającym dochodów w walucie obcej, w okresie od 2000 r. do 2013 r. W omawianym okresie istniejące regulacje publiczne i polityka banków sprawiły, że występowała znaczna łatwość w uzyskaniu kredytu hipotecznego w walutach obcych. Jednocześnie w grupie kredytobiorców znalazły się takie osoby, które nie otrzymałyby w tym czasie kredytu w złotych polskich (PLN). Autor wskazuje na społeczne konsekwencje wyłonienia się znaczącej grupy obywateli obciążonych wysokim zadłużeniem. Jego zdaniem ujawniło się pokolenie "niewolników kredytowych" jako nowe zjawisko społeczne -życia ze świadomością długotrwałego niespłaconego zobowiązania. Ogranicza to aktywność społeczno-gospodarczą, a także buduje obojętność wobec długu, czyli stan, w którym każde kolejne zobowiązanie "nie pogarsza" już tak złej sytuacji. Autor prezentuje również propozycje i działania ugrupowań politycznych oraz samego środowiska kredytobiorców zmierzające do rozwiązania tej sytuacji. Przedmiotem analizy są skala i skutki społeczno-gospodarcze uplasowania na rynku kredytów hipotecznych odnoszących się do walut obcych. Celem opracowania jest próba identyfikacji społeczno-gospodarczych skutków oraz skali zaniechań polityki publicznej wobec kryzysu tzw. "kredytów walutowych" 3 . Analiza została przeprowadzona na danych pierwotnych i wtórnych z lat 1989-2016.

The essay explores the oversight of so-called 'private digital powers' through civil remedies, situated within a broader reflection on the boundary between private and public law. The analysis begins with the new European regulatory framework, specifically the Digital Services Act (DSA), which imposes duties of conduct to mitigate systemic risks, such as the spread of 'illegal' content and user manipulation. These duties embody the principle of objective good faith. Consequently, they curtail the unilateral authority of entities wielding this private power, requiring them to protect the 'vulnerable' party. In terms of enforcement, the essay examines the complementarity of public and private remedies (including non-compensatory ones). Rather than serving as a mere appendage to public regulation, private remedies address the user's direct interest in a 'safe' digital environment, thereby preserving the conceptual distinction between public and private law.

Do we have the power to create or modify obligations and prohibitions, and to release agents from them by generating permissions? At first glance, this power may appear puzzling, almost magical, since it implies that moral agents can reshape the normative domain merely through communicative acts. This paper investigates what kind of moral principle can sustain such a robust notion of normative powers. Clarifying these principles shows that normative powers are not alien to our ordinary moral experience, but in fact closely tied to practices such as promising, consenting, or authorizing. Nevertheless, their intelligibility remains far from secure, as the very possibility of principles of this kind is philosophically contentious. Therefore, the discussion explores the main strategies available for grounding the normative force of principles capable of conferring robust normative powers. A central question is whether such principles can be grounded on non-deontic human interests and values, or whether they presuppose the existence of irreducible deontic values. The analysis supports the latter view, concluding that robust normative powers require recognition of fundamental deontic values or interests that cannot be derived from other considerations. This conclusion, in turn, leads to a broader methodological point about the limits of moral philosophy. The dispute between advocates of robust normative powers and their rivals cannot be resolved by simply vindicating one side over the other. Rather, it functions as a source of philosophical self-knowledge, bringing to light the presuppositions of each position and the deeper reasons for the persistence of disagreement.

This paper presents a critical examination of the representation of Muslim women in Islamic theology through the work of Ali Muhammad al-Sallabi. Adopting a reflective and analytical perspective, it distinguishes between authentic religious teachings found in the Qur'an and Sunnah and interpretations shaped by cultural and sociopolitical contexts. Through translation and commentary, the study highlights the ethical and theological foundations that define women's roles in Islam, arguing that accurate understanding requires separating religious doctrine from cultural practices.

This study provides a doctrinal and problem-based exposition of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, specifically focusing on the critical legal parameters surrounding the rejection of a plaint under Order VII Rule 11. Through an analytical review of corporate governance disputes—specifically involving the validity of directorial resolutions and the appointment of managing directors—this work examines the boundary between summary judicial power and the right to a full trial. It underscores the established principle that courts must rely solely on the averments within the plaint, assuming them to be true, without adjudicating disputed facts or considering external evidence at the threshold stage. By referencing pivotal jurisprudence, such as Shamsul Huda vs. Jalaluddin Ahmed & Ors., the research highlights that mixed questions of law and fact, including issues of locus standi and the application of Section 42 of the Specific Relief Act, 1877, cannot justify a summary rejection of the suit. Ultimately, this exposition serves as a comprehensive guide for Bangladesh Judicial Service (BJS) and LL.B (Hons.) candidates, reinforcing the necessity of protecting a plaintiff’s opportunity for trial against premature judicial overreach.



Keywords: Code of Civil Procedure 1908, Order VII Rule 11, Rejection of Plaint, BJS Preparation, Cause of Action, Judicial Service Exam, Company Law, Specific Relief Act 1877, Bangladesh Jurisprudence, Procedural Law.

La tesi dell’imprescrittibilità dell'azione di simulazione è sostenuta agevolmente da quanti
aderiscono alla tesi della nullità del contratto simulato, basandola sul disposto dell'art.
1422 c.c. Tuttavia, complice la perdita di credito della tesi della nullità, non manca chi tende
a considerare l'azione soggetta all'ordinario termine decennale. Una simile soluzione non
presenta oggettive contrarietà, se non fosse per l'innegabile aspetto di accertamento che
caratterizza la natura dell'azione in questione. Se si ritiene questo aspetto decisivo e non
superabile, la soluzione dell'imprescrittibilità sembra rappresentare la sola ipotesi
praticabile. Tuttavia, l'adozione di questa soluzione richiede un accorgimento per mitigare
e razionalizzare gli effetti derivanti dallo scorrere del tempo sui diritti ricollegabili al patto
di simulazione. A tal fine, il termine di prescrizione dovrebbe decorrere non dal momento
in cui viene concluso il contratto dissimulato, ma da quando cessano o si esauriscono gli
effetti dell'accordo simulatorio. I rilievi mossi a questa tesi non sono in grado di impedirne
l'accoglimento, basandosi principalmente su un'esigenza di tutela dei terzi che, in realtà,
non sussiste. Né, ragionando in questo modo, si farebbe dipendere la prescrizione da un
evento interno e soggettivo alle parti, in quanto l'art. 2935 c.c. richiede una possibilità
concreta e non solo astratta, che non ricorre finché l'azione contraddice la funzione
economico/sociale del patto.

This premium e-book, authored by Judge Nazmul Hasan, offers an exhaustive and authoritative compilation of the primary statutes governing property and contractual relations in Bangladesh, specifically tailored for candidates of the Bangladesh Judicial Service (BJS) examinations. By presenting the unabridged "Bare Acts"—including the Contract Act, 1872, the Transfer of Property Act, 1882, the Registration Act, 1908, and essential land tenancy laws—Judge Nazmul Hasan ensures that students have access to the full legislative text necessary for deep jurisprudential analysis without the risks of over-simplified summaries. Developed as a pro bono publico initiative, this work serves as both a high-level academic resource and a practical toolkit, bridging the gap between statutory theory and judicial application while reflecting the author’s commitment to institutional excellence and legal pedagogy. It is an indispensable guide for law students and aspirants seeking to achieve the precision and depth of knowledge required for success in the competitive legal landscape of Bangladesh.


Keywords: Bangladesh Judicial Service (BJS), Property Law, Contract Act 1872, Transfer of Property Act 1882, Registration Act 1908, State Acquisition and Tenancy Act 1950, Non-Agricultural Tenancy Act 1949, Bare Acts, Statutory Analysis, Legal Education Bangladesh, Judge Nazmul Hasan, Judicial Exam Preparation, Law e-Book Platform.

The transparency and explainability of AI, along with the difficulties users face in understanding its functioning, risks, and potential benefits, constitute one of the main challenges to the use and deployment of new automated systems. The vulnerability of both consumers and professional users is increasing, along with the increase of the imbalance of power. Public oversight must also be accompanied by regulations that allow users to understand where, how, and with what kind and levels of risks it is possible to use an AI product. Information duties are a core component of the AI regulatory framework. However, they are currently dispersed across multiple legislative instruments, resulting in a fragmented and unclear regulatory landscape that requires careful analysis and clarification. This contribution examines the information duties applicable to AI products and services, with the aim of mapping the relevant legislative framework and highlighting emerging lines of interpretation. Starting from the analysis of the Digital Content Directive, limited to the relevant profiles, the current framework for consumer protection is analysed. Secondly, by examining the latest contribution of the Product Liability Directive, the state of the art of consumer and user protection for products and services with artificial intelligence is completed, to assess their readiness for new products and services. Finally, the AI Act is examined, to underline further information duties, both directly applicable and from a de iure condendo perspective, as well as best practices for operators. The combined interpretation of the relevant legislative acts supports an extensive interpretation of information duties and AI literacy, aimed at enhancing the level and quality of information available to consumers.

go (np. z okazji oficjalnego pogrzebu księżnej walii diany w opactwie westminsterskim we wrześniu 1997 r., nabożeństwa z okazji 60-lecia panowania królowej elżbiety ii w katedrze św. Pawła wiosną 2012 r.), jest przedmiotem krytyki niektórych środowisk. kwestia zniesienia ustanowienia nie jest zamknięta, wiąże się z udzieleniem odpowiedzi na m.in. postawione w niniejszej książce, stale aktualne pytania i to w kontekście zmniejszającego się -co pokazują wyniki ostatniego brytyjskiego spisu powszechnego z 2011 r. -znaczenia religii chrześcijańskiej dla mieszkańców wielkiej Brytanii. wśród nich są oprócz chrześcijan, żydów i muzułmanów również np. hinduiści, buddyści, sikhowie, dżiniści, zoroastrianie, wyznawcy Bahai, druidzi, a także osoby bezwyznaniowe, w tym wielu niewierzących. Przyszłość przyniesie odpowiedź na pytanie o dalszą adekwatność modelu ustanowienia, w obliczu zbliżającej się 500 rocznicy (w 2034 r.) ustanowienia się przez henryka Viii głową ziemską Ecclesia Anglicana.

This study examines the regulatory challenges posed by artificial intelligence (AI) in international commercial transactions through a doctrinal, comparative, and interdisciplinary legal framework, focusing on the interaction between private law and public law regimes. As AI systems increasingly participate in contract formation, execution, dispute resolution, and data-driven decision-making, traditional legal doctrines grounded in human agency, consent, and accountability are rendered inadequate. This research identifies a fundamental doctrinal gap in contract law, tort liability, intellectual property, and consumer protection, while also highlighting the limitations of public law frameworks governing data protection, competition, cybersecurity, and human rights.

Adopting a comparative approach, the study evaluates regulatory models across the European Union, the United States, and selected Asia-Pacific jurisdictions, revealing significant divergence in legal philosophies ranging from rights-based and risk-oriented frameworks to innovation-driven and hybrid regulatory approaches. This fragmentation generates legal uncertainty, compliance burdens, and enforcement challenges in cross-border AI-driven commerce.

The study makes an original contribution by proposing a doctrinal–comparative synthesis that integrates private and public law perspectives into a unified analytical framework. It advances the concept of distributed accountability as a model for liability allocation among AI developers, deployers, and users, while rejecting premature recognition of AI as an independent legal person. Furthermore, the research operationalizes ethical principles such as transparency, fairness, and accountability within enforceable legal doctrines, thereby bridging the gap between normative theory and positive law.

The findings underscore the urgent need for international harmonization through institutional mechanisms such as UNCITRAL, OECD, and WTO, and advocate for adaptive, principle-based regulatory frameworks capable of evolving alongside technological innovation. By combining doctrinal rigor, comparative insight, and normative reform, this study contributes to the development of a coherent, future-oriented legal architecture for governing AI in international commercial transactions.

Tempus fugit. Mid-April already, reminding us of the mortal wounding of Abraham Lincoln on Good Friday, the fate of the Titanic and, on a more cheerful note, the occasion when Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy were awestruck by the sight of that host of daffodils that inspired one of the most celebrated poems in the English language. but a date with even greater historical associations is only a matter of weeks ahead-July the fourth, which this year marks the 250th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia in 1776.. In other terms this occasion poses the completion of the Fifth Jubilee of that momentous day in history when the Liberty Bell's peals proclaimed the dawn of a new era. Ironically enough, the same bell was cast in honour of William Penn's decision to grant full autonomy to the legislature of Pennsylvania in 1701, fifty years before. Ultimately he derived his authority for doing so from a royal charter bestowed by Charles II in 1681 which made Penn the sole proprietor of Philadelphia and much land surrounding it. The bell displays a verse from the twenty-fifth chapter of Book of Leviticus that states: Declare Liberty throughout the Land. In biblical times the conclusion of the 50-year jubilee cycle signaled a fundamental reset of provisions concerning the remission of debts, slaveholding and the ownership of land. Slaves were released from the obligation to serve their masters and landed properties on lease reverted to their original owners. In 1751 who could have entertained thoughts of the future independence of the United States? Even so, the basic message of the jubilee has always invited celebrants to reflect in thankfulness on all that the previous fifty years had brought with them and to rededicate themselves to the task of achieving and sustaining success througho….ut the coming fifty years. Thus it is not surprising that the jubilees of 1826, 1876, 1926 and 2026 were all times of thoughtful retrospection and enthused anticipation . How will it be this year on July the Fourth this year? Rarely has the course of events in in the coming three months been so unpredictable as now, so let us content ourselves with a brief review of past jubilees, their backgrounds and the hopes and fears that they engendered. 1826, the Golden Jubilee, a milestone that marked the approach of the end of the years over which the Founding Fathers presided. Most notably it witnessed the remarkable coincidence associated with 'the same-day deaths' of John Adams

Una parte importante de los estudios de Derecho Civil está destinada al análisis de los contratos en particular. En ella, el estudiante se familiariza con una serie de contratos de gran relevancia teórica y práctica, pues se trata de contratos que suelen ser utilizados por los particulares en
su autorregulación de intereses y que, a su turno, revisten el carácter de prototípicos para el aprendizaje de la técnica contractual. Una vez familiarizado con ellos, el estudiante puede comprender fácilmente la regulación de otros contratos, así como proponer y redactar contratos atípicos que se ajusten a los intereses particulares de los contratantes. Para que tal propósito se consiga, es indispensable contar con textos en grado de guiar a los estudiantes en el proceso de aprendizaje. Por esta razón –en un mundo en que abundan los artículos y libros misceláneos–, es muy loable el hecho de que un autor destine su tiempo y energías a escribir un manual, esto es, un libro de consulta que contiene una exposición básica y, al mismo tiempo, suficiente para la cabal comprensión de un argumento. Un manual de contratos parte especial es, por tanto, una herramienta indispensable para la enseñanza del Derecho, sin embargo, en la literatura reciente, no se encontraba un texto de tales características y por esto se agradece el esfuerzo del profesor Rosas.
Empero, no hay que confundirse: el libro que el lector tiene en sus manos constituye un valioso aporte académico también para los operadores jurídicos. En efecto, si bien su propósito declarado es servir como instrumento para la formación de los estudiantes de Derecho que se aproximan al estudio de los tipos contractuales, lo cierto es que él se devela también muy útil para quienes tengan una duda práctica puntual o requieran refrescar sus conocimientos acerca de un determinado contrato.

Este trabajo explora la naturaleza y el propósito de las obligaciones
de garantía en el derecho contractual, señalando que, a diferencia de las
obligaciones tradicionales centradas en una conducta del deudor, estas se
enfocan en la asunción de un riesgo. Se argumenta que las obligaciones de
garantía buscan proteger al acreedor al asegurar que el deudor responderá
ante la materialización de un evento adverso específico, incluso en casos
de fuerza mayor. Esto implica una responsabilidad estricta u objetiva para el
deudor. Finalmente, se destaca la importancia práctica de estas obligaciones para la gestión de riesgos en los contratos, permitiendo una mayor flexibilidad y seguridad jurídica para las partes involucradas.

La indemnización de daños patrimoniales tras el incumplimiento de contrato siempre ha contrapuesto las categorías de daño emergente y lucro cesante, de modo que cada daño debía englobarse en una de estas categorías para poder ser indemnizado. En este artículo se analiza brevemente si esto es necesario y para ello se emplea un caso de gran relevancia mediática.
The compensation of pecuniary damages after breach of contract has always opposed the categories of damnus emergens and lucrum cessans, so that each loss had to be included in one of these categories in order to be compensated. This article briefly analyzes whether this is necessary, using a case of great media relevance.

Standard economic reasoning suggests that expanding an individual's choice set cannot reduce welfare because additional options may always be ignored. This intuition underlies the traditional economic justification for freedom of contract. This paper shows that the monotonic relationship between choice and welfare may break down in bargaining environments characterized by asymmetric bilateral monopoly and unequal costs of disagreement. In such settings, some contractual options do not improve the weaker party's outside alternative but instead expand the set of concessions that the stronger party can credibly demand during negotiation. The paper introduces a distinction between beneficial options, which strengthen a party's disagreement position, and leverage options, which enlarge the bargaining space without improving the weaker party's exit opportunities. When leverage options become legally available, the bargaining equilibrium may shift in favor of the stronger party, even if the options themselves are never exercised. The analysis suggests that certain legal limits on contractual autonomy-such as doctrines of public policy, duress, abuse of dependence, and unconscionability-can be understood as institutional commitment devices that remove leverage options from the bargaining space. Rather than imposing paternalistic limits on voluntary exchange, these rules can be understood as providing bargaining safeguards in relationships marked by asymmetric bargaining power. A comparative analysis of legal systems, together with a range of illustrative case studies spanning family, employment, and commercial relationships, shows how legal institutions frequently operate in this manner. The paper thus offers a unified explanation for a wide range of limits on contractual freedom and identifies conditions under which restricting contractual options may improve the welfare of vulnerable parties.

The purpose of this paper is to consider the development surrounding the separation of the religion from the State. The paper will consider concepts of secularism in France and two important concepts of law, those of Laicite; the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, establishing state secularism, and ending the the second most important concept of law established in 1801 the Concordat.