Fire Science

Rio de Janeiro is one of the cities with the highest rates of murders of police officers
in service in Brazil and this is related to spatial segregation in the city. Thus, this work
has the objective of mapping risk-of-death areas for murder of police officers in the
city of Rio de Janeiro. Methodology involved the GEOINT (Geointelligence) resources
for organizing and combining data and information from various sources to ensure
the indication of areas critical to police practice. Results showed that the Northern
Zone of Rio de Janeiro has the highest rates of police deaths in service during the last
10 years and due to a diversity of economic and social factors these events have been
more recurrent.

Fire safety has always been a major concern in the design of timber construction. Even though wood is a highly combustible material, timber members can perform adequately under elevated temperatures. The thermal response of timber connections, however, is in most cases poor and determination of their fire resistance is usually the crucial factor in evaluating the overall load-bearing capacity of wood structures exposed to fire. The analysis of timber joints under fire conditions can be challenging due to their complexity and variety. After presenting the variation of the properties of timber with temperature, this paper reviews the fire performance of various connection types, such as bolted or nailed wood-to-wood and steel-to-timber joints. Results from relevant experimental programs and numerical studies are discussed in detail and future research needs are highlighted. The effect of several factors on the fire resistance of timber connections, such as the fastener diameter, timber thickness and joint geometry, is investigated and useful conclusions are drawn. Based on these, preliminary guidelines for the efficient design of timber connections under fire exposure are presented.

Cast-iron girders were used in many nineteenth century structures, especially in fireproof flooring systems (such as jack arches). Many such structures are still in use today and it is important that they fulfil the current requirements on fire resistance when there is a change of use. Cast iron has limited ductility so it is not possible for cast-iron beams to achieve total plasticity as for modern steel beams. Furthermore, cast iron has different mechanical properties in tension and compression and there is often a severe non-uniform temperature distribution in cast-iron beam sections. This paper presents the development of a simplified method to calculate the bending moment capacity of cast-iron beams in a jack arched system exposed to a standard ISO 834 fire. The method is based on an assumed strain distribution in the cross-section. A comparison of the results calculated using the simplified method with those using the fibre method, validated by Abaqus simulation results, indicates that the proposed simplified method is sufficiently accurate as the basis of a design method. 1 Structures and Buildings Moment capacity of cast-iron beams exposed to fire Maraveas, Wang and Swailes Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

This paper provides an overview of some significant aspects concerning the design of concrete tunnel linings subjected to severe fire exposure. The distinguishing feature of tunnel fires is the possible rapid rise of the air temperature within few minutes. The factors that contribute to this phenomenon in combination with the fire duration and the fire spread along the longitudinal direction are cited. Additionally, the widely used fire curves are presented, showing their influence on the predicted temperature profile of a concrete cross-section through uncoupled heat transfer transient numerical analyses. Then, the effect of fire on the concrete behaviour is briefly described with examples from real fire accidents. The focus is on the explosive spalling of concrete, provided that, in general, tunnels are at greater risk than other structures, principally due to the high heating rate and the high initial moisture content. The main features and mechanisms of spalling are presented in conjunction with the available modelling techniques and the design approaches against spalling. Finally, the effectiveness of several passive protection measures is discussed, based on the recent experiences.

This paper presents a finite element study of a steel oil storage tank with cylindrical shell shape and conical roof subjected to an adjacent fire. Fire is one of the main hazards associated with tanks containing combustible materials. Several catastrophic accidents have taken place during the last decades revealing the consequences and losses arising from such events and highlighting the importance for proper design against thermal buckling. Oil storage tanks are usually placed in large groups and closed distances. Therefore, it is assumed herein that the fire occurs outside the tank. Critical buckling temperatures are calculated considering that the temperature profile along the circumference of the tank is defined according to a cosine square distribution. The influence of the roof stiffness, of the circumferential area exposed to fire and of the filling level is examined. Apart from the thermal loads, the self-weight of the tank and the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the liquid are taken into account in the static analyses. The mechanical properties of steel are taken according to Eurocode 3.

Written by , and This qualitative, single exploratory case study examined the influence of Firefighter Recruit Candidate Academy (RCA) instructors on recruits' personal and professional development. Conducted at a university in the Western United States, the study analyzed reflective journals that recorded the weekly experiences of 18 recruits over a 15-week training period. The data analysis revealed that RCA instructors model a role that extends beyond imparting firefighting skills and knowledge. The findings revealed that RCA instructors create a positive learning community, provide feedback that promotes growth, build trust-based relationships, display professionalism outwardly, and share knowledge with the next generation of firefighters. The study highlighted the RCA instructor's role as one who not only strives to develop the skills and abilities of future firefighters but also serves as a role model for whom those they train seek to become.

Se revisan los incendios forestales ocurridos en California en enero-febrero 2025 y en particular el estudio publicado por la World Weather
Attribution que indica que el calentamiento global incrementó la
destructividad de los incendios forestales ocurridos en Los
Ángeles a principios de 2025.

Fire monitoring over Indonesia using MODIS satellite data is analysed using the Indofire and MOD14 algorithms. The analysis studies the relationships between fire occurrence during the decade 2001-2010 with cloud cover, vegetation cover, and climate parameters. The sensitivity of the algorithm to fire detection is also investigated. This understanding is important especially to the forest management authority in Indonesia to support its improved management of the fires and to reduce the negative impacts, particularly on the environment. The study shows cloud cover, seasons, vegetation cover type, and climate parameters influence the distribution of detected fires. Cloud cover obstructs the satellite view of fire on the earth's surface, therefore the number of observed fire hotspots (FHS) is likely less than the actual number of occurring fires. We have applied a correction to the number of FHS by using proportion of cloud cover relative to land cover. The estimation of FHS number based on monthly cloud cover data is shown to be different to estimations based on yearly cloud cover data. Seasonal data analysis shows the occurrence of fires in the dry season in higher than during the wet season. Vegetation cover is also analysed and the data show that swamp bush areas are the most prone areas to be burned, particularly during the dry season. Finally, the climate parameters precipitation and SOI that indicate the El-Nino and La-Nina phenomenon are shown to be correlated with the temporal patterns of fire occurrence. The El-Nino phenomenon tends to delay the onset of the wet season and therefore the number of fire was detected is higher during the El-Nino than the La-Nina. There is potential to adjust algorithm threshold coefficients to correct for wet season versus dry season biases. This justification is based on sensitivity analysis of the fire detection algorithm applied to MODIS data over Indonesia. The analysis was conducted using the MOD14 algorithm and shows that the algorithm displays a different response to the MODIS data acquired in the dry and wet seasons. The sensitivity to detecting and monitoring fires is related to the operation of the remote sensing algorithm, in particular the selection of detection threshold values. The

In this work, fire simulations were carried out on zinc-coated steel sheets usually employed for the structural parts of furniture, transformer rooms and aeration pipes. The thermal alteration induced by the fire was simulated by heating samples at 13 different temperatures (from 20° C to 1050° C) and for different exposure times (1 h and 6 h) in a laboratory furnace. The metallurgical investigation concerned the surface coloring by photographic analysis, the morphology and chemical composition of the surface oxides by SEM and EDS and the microstructure modifications as a function of the temperature by LOM. The influence of the different parameters was discussed by a statistical approach. The obtained results allowed to associate the temperature to one or more alteration of the steel microstructure and of the color, the morphology and the chemical composition of the surface oxides.

Aboveground biomass in cattle pasture converted from tropical dense forest was studied both before and after reburning in Brazilian Amazonia. In a 7‐year‐old pasture studied in Apiaú, Roraima, the aboveground dry weight of biomass (live plus dead) exposed to burning consisted of 96.3 t ha−1 of original forest remains, 6.2 t ha−1 of secondary successional vegetation (woody invaders in the pasture), and 8.0 t ha−1 of pasture grass (carbon contents 48.2%, 45.4%, and 42.2%, respectively). In terms of carbon, burning efficiencies for these three categories were 13.2%, 66.7% and 94.6%, respectively. Net charcoal formation was 0.35 t C ha−1 or 0.63% of the carbon exposed to the reburn, while the total accumulated since conversion (including the initial burn) is estimated at 2.3 t ha−1 (1.82% of the predeforestation aboveground biomass carbon stock). The dynamics of the original forest remains were represented in simulations that included parameters such as charcoal formation, burning effic...

The fire service has traditionally relied on a foundation of hierarchy, discipline, and respect for authority. While these qualities promote operational efficiency and order, they may also foster a leadership approach rooted in fear. Leadership of fear, defined as the use of intimidation, punitive actions, or emotional manipulation to ensure compliance, can erode organizational trust, psychological safety, and sound decision-making. Modern research on high-reliability organizations (HROs) and national fire service standards highlights that fear-based leadership is incompatible with safe, ethical, and resilient fire service operations.

Os acidentes de trânsito e sua magnitude negativa apresentam-se em todo o mundo, especialmente nos países de média e baixa renda, gerando vítimas, de forma psicológica, os incapacitando ou mesmo levando a um grande número de mortos, principalmente da população jovem do sexo masculino. O trabalho de Souza (2009) permitiu concluir que Manaus gera aproximadamente doze mil acidentes por ano e leva à morte mais de duzentas vítimas só na área urbana do município. Ao abordar esta temática, deve-se levar em consideração o fator histórico local, pois Manaus teve um acelerado e desordenado crescimento populacional durante os anos, tanto por ser atrativa com um promissor polo Industrial que imanta uma forte imigração, quando para a contribuição do surgimento de diversos bairros de ruas estreitas e becos, com pouquíssimas vias largas ou principais, tornando assim a cidade de Manaus carente de vias largas e adequadas para uma grande frota de veículos trazida pelo crescente consumismo resultante do poder aquisitivo dos cidadãos que aqui nasceram ou se estabeleceram. Somada a este primeiro, tem-se a deficiente ou insuficiente sinalização e identificação das vias e ruas, que trazem sérios transtornos não somente para a população como também para os órgãos que deste necessitam ou quando prescindem da localização das ocorrências de acidente e no
cruzamento de dados. Com o crescimento da cidade e principalmente da frota de veículos, quais alterações ocorreram nesta realidade? Portanto, no presente trabalho procura-se reconhecer os 10 bairros com o quantitativo maior de acidentes, do mês de agosto e dezembro dos anos de 2013 a 2016, bem como as principais vias de acesso.

Living with fire is a challenge for human communities because they are influenced by socio-economic, political, ecological and climatic processes at various spatial and temporal scales. Over the course of 2 days, the authors discussed how communities could live with fire challenges at local, national and transnational scales. Exploiting our diverse, international and interdisciplinary expertise, we outline generalizable properties of fire-adaptive communities in varied settings where cultural knowledge of fire is rich and diverse. At the national scale, we discussed policy and management challenges for countries that have diminishing fire knowledge, but for whom global climate change will bring new fire problems. Finally, we assessed major fire challenges that transcend national political boundaries, including the health burden of smoke plumes and the climate consequences of wildfires. It is clear that to best address the broad range of fire problems, a holistic wildfire scholarship...

After reading this chapter and using the interactive spreadsheet, we expect that you will be able to: 1. Explain the chemical equations for both complete and incomplete combustion of fuels. In particular, you should be able to identify the key inputs and how changing their values alters the predicted values, 2. Summarize how flaming and smoldering combustion differ with respect to smoke composition, and 3. Use the interactive spreadsheet to estimate emission factors, particulate matter, and smoke production for wildfires and prescribed fires.

In this work, fire simulations were carried out on AISI 316 austenitic stainless steel sheets (similar to EN X5CrNiMo17-12-2), usually employed for the production of flue pipes. The thermal alteration induced by the fire was simulated by heating samples at different temperatures (from 20°C to 1050°C) and for different exposure times (1 h and 6 h) in a laboratory furnace. The metallurgical investigation concerned the surface coloring by photographic analysis; the morphology and chemical composition of the surface oxides by SEM and EDS; the microstructure as a function of temperature by LOM. The influence of the different parameters was discussed by a statistical ANOVA approach. The obtained results allowed to associate each temperature to one or more alterations in color, to the morphology and the chemical composition assumed by the surface oxides, as well as to the microstructure of the steel.

Este estudo trata da análise espacial e das formas arquitetônicas que refletem o medo, especialmente o medo do crime, e suas configurações em bairros populares de cidades médias. Por conta do crescimento da violência criminal nas últimas décadas tornou-se imprescindível o aprofundamento deste tema que também se associa ao abandono das práticas coletivas no espaço público. Através dos artefatos de proteção e segurança1, procuramos mapeá-los nas fachadas das residências do bairro Santo Antônio dos Prazeres. A escolha do bairro foi feita em função da alta concentração residencial popular, de médio e alto padrão, configurando-se como uma zona de alta expansão imobiliária. Além disso, os altos índices criminais no bairro, especialmente aqueles ligados aos crimes contra o patrimônio e crimes contra a vida reforçaram o argumento da pesquisa no sentido de se encontrar um local cujas características remetem à “arquitetura do medo”. A“arquitetura do medo” vem sendo recorrentemente estudada por diversas correntes acadêmicas, a exemplo do grupo de pesquisa Arquiviol, da Faculdade de Arquitetura da Universidade Federal Fluminense, comprovando que a sociedade contemporânea se utiliza cada vez mais do chamado “enclausuramento moderno” e que vem tornando escassas as relações sociais, facilitando de certa forma o aumento da criminalidade. A própria natureza da violência se revela excludente nos diversos territórios sociais, pois o que ocorre em bairros de classe média e alta não é o mesmo que ocorre nos bairros populares, ainda que existam os aparatos policiais, eles se tornam ineficientes no combate ao crime destas localidades, fazendo com que as pessoas “substituam” de certa forma as políticas públicas de segurança pública, por artifícios de proteção, segurança e vigilância. Particularmente no estudo de caso, este trabalho se utiliza do método grounded theory aplicado em pesquisas qualitativas procurando transformar dados qualitativos em códigos mensuráveis que se encontram tão subjetivos, especialmente quando representamos este subjetivismo nas chamadas “cultura do medo” e da “sensação de segurança”. Assim sendo, apesar do presente trabalho dar um enfoque local ao tema, acredita-se que o entendimento da particularidade, ou da fragmentação territorial, possa auxiliar na compreensão das diferentes formas de como o medo da violência urbana, principalmente a criminal, se manifesta e se materializa na forma arquitetônica, servindo como contribuição para estudos comparativos com outras localidades na tentativa de se fazer um diagnóstico regional para cidades médias do problema em tela.
PALAVRAS-CHAVE: medo do crime, violência criminal, espaço urbano, segregação socioespacial.

Areas affected by forest fires that occurred in 2005 were mapped in the municipalities of Boca do Acre and Lábrea (in the southern part of Brazil's state of Amazonas) and estimates were made of the loss of biomass and carbon stock and the committed emissions from increased tree mortality due to fire. Fire scars observed on Landsat-5 TM satellite images from 2004 to 2006 were visually interpreted and digitized; over 865.6 km² of forest affected by fire were mapped, the majority (2.9% of the total forest cover) concentrated along the southern edges of the municipalities, which border on the states of Rondônia and Acre. The greatest loss of biomass due to the increase in tree mortality was indicated by the survey made four years after the fires: 4.5 × 10 6 Mg total (above + below-ground) and 3.7 × 10 6 Mg (only above-ground). Consequently, 2.2 × 10 6 Mg C (total) and 1.8 × 10 6 Mg C (above-ground) of potential carbon emissions were committed from the initial burn of forest biomass and from trees killed by the fire. Emissions occur both through oxidation of dead biomass by decomposition or through combustion in subsequent fire events. Our results indicate that fires can affect extensive tracts of forest and can emit significant amounts of carbon to the atmosphere in periods of drought. Fire plays a significant role as a threat to the biological balance of the forest and causes loss of biomass and emission of greenhouse gases that have critical implications for the future of forests in the Amazon.

Buku Mengatasi Limbah Laundry: Inovasi Ramah Lingkungan dari Kayu Besi Jayapura mengangkat isu penting tentang dampak limbah laundry terhadap lingkungan, khususnya di Kota Jayapura yang tengah berkembang pesat. Pertumbuhan penduduk dan perubahan gaya hidup perkotaan memicu meningkatnya aktivitas laundry yang menghasilkan limbah cair berbahaya bagi ekosistem. Buku ini mengajak pembaca memahami karakteristik limbah laundry, risikonya terhadap kualitas air, serta urgensi penanganan yang efektif agar tidak menimbulkan krisis lingkungan.

Tidak hanya menjelaskan permasalahan, buku ini juga menawarkan solusi berbasis teknologi tepat guna dengan memanfaatkan potensi lokal. Kayu besi (Eusideroxylon zwageri), salah satu kekayaan hutan Papua, diperkenalkan sebagai bahan dasar karbon aktif yang mampu menyerap zat pencemar secara efektif. Melalui pembahasan yang sistematis, pembaca akan menemukan proses pengolahan serbuk kayu besi menjadi karbon aktif, mekanisme kerja filter, serta keunggulannya dalam menurunkan kadar TSS, fosfat, dan COD pada air limbah.

Lebih dari sekadar teori, buku ini menyajikan gagasan inovatif berupa prototipe pengolah limbah laundry yang praktis dan ramah lingkungan. Disertai pembahasan tentang pengaruh kecepatan aliran, pemeliharaan filter, hingga tantangan implementasi di tingkat rumah tangga dan UMKM, buku ini menjadi panduan aplikatif bagi pelaku usaha laundry, akademisi, maupun pemerhati lingkungan. Melalui pendekatan yang mengedepankan kearifan lokal dan keberlanjutan, karya ini menginspirasi solusi nyata untuk mengurangi pencemaran dan menjaga kelestarian lingkungan di era modern.

In the various areas, quantities of the materials and goods used by mankind show rapid growth, whereas its form, rate of use is significantly varying. Today requirements and expectations concerning the various materials are wide ranging, so the properties of these materials are developed in accordance to the demands. Presently the carbon fiber is being used more and more frequently in those areas which require special demands. This is explainable by its outstanding properties, namely high tenacity, stiffness, low heat dilation, conductivity etc. From composites, lightweight structures may be produced to meet higher level applications. Carbon fiber reinforced composites-in the areas demanding high mechanical usage, will be of determining importance in the future. KEYWORDS: carbon fiber fabrication, properties, application INTRODUCTION Presently Carbon Fiber is being used more and more frequently in those areas which require special demands. This is explainable by its outstanding prop...

In this work, product yield distribution at varying reactor temperatures during wood pyrolysis was investigated. Hard and soft wood samples (Mahogany-Khaya senegalensis and Gmelina-Gmelina arborea, respectively) were procured from Pakiotan sawmill in Ogbomoso, Oyo State, South-Western Nigeria. The samples were cut into cuboid shape, each with an average weight of 20 g. The samples were then pyrolyzed in a fixed bed reactor. Experiments were performed at five temperature level (350, 450, 550, 650 and 750 o C) at a fixed holding time of fifteen 15 mins and at vacuum pressure. The weight of char, tar and gas produced in each experiment were then measured, recorded and expressed in percentage of initial weight of the pyrolyzed sample. Results showed that Mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) gave maximum char, tar and gas yield of 39.43% at 350 o C, 42.53% at 350 o C and 53.93% at 750 o C, respectively, while for Gmelina (Gmelina arborea), the maximum yields were 28.35% at 350 o C for char, 24.81% at 350 o C for tar and 68.11% at 750 o C for gas. The minimum yield of Mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) for char, tar and gas were 28.35% at 750 o C, 17.72% at 750 o C and 18.04% at 350 o C, respectively and for Gmelina (Gmelina arborea), 17.72% at 750 o C, 14.18% at 750 o C and 46.84% at 350 o C, respectively. This study showed that char and tar yields decreased while gas yield increased as pyrolysis temperature increased. At all temperatures considered, gas yields were higher than tar and char yields for softwood while for hardwood, tar yield declined with increase in temperature with accompanying increase in gas yield.

The kinetics of the oxidation process of the organic substances known as fuel gas (the alkanes class in general) deals with reactions whose mechanisms are analyzed in many theories and models. Irrespective of the nature and excess of the carburant, all partial combustion intermediates are revealed: alcohols, aldehydes, organic acids (that together with other derivatives from catalytic reforming reactions are characterized by the global parameter VOCs), carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide and finely divided carbon under the form of soot. The volume of oxidation intermediates increases when the carburant excess decreases monotonously to values below the stoichiometric ratio, so that when the limit is reached the carbon dioxide and water vapor volumes can be minimal. This paper puts forward a kinetic combustion model based on the parallel and consecutive reactions producing part of the chemical compounds that form the concentration of VOC, carbon monoxide and finely divided particles of the gas produced by fuel gas combustion.

On May 21th 2014 a truck blew out a tyre and crashed into the wall of the Heinenoordtunnel nearby Barendrecht, The Netherlands. On impact the truck instantly caught fire and slided over more than 75 meters to the lowest point of the tunnel. The Rotterdam-Rijnmond Fire Department, the Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment (owner of the tunnel) and Efectis Netherlands BV collected information about this recent fire, focussed on fire fighting operations, communication during the incident, fire development in the tunnel and the performance of tunnel safety measures like escape doors, ventilation system and tunnel lining. The Fire Departments Investigation Team collected information in the tunnel, about the origin and specific development of the fire, the performance of the tunnel safety measures, like escape doors and fire fighting equipment. The Ministry collected data from the traffic cameras in the tunnel. These cameras recorded the accident, large parts of the evacuation and th...

Since the early nineties, there have been major studies carried out to learn the behaviour and performance of composite structures exposed to fire. It is essential that structural members maintain their integrity and load bearing capacity under elevated temperature for an adequate duration to allow building occupants to escape and for any firefighting and rescue operation to take place safely. The recently published joint Australia/New Zealand Standard 2327:2017 incorporates a major section on the design and analysis of two-way composite steel-concrete floor systems for fire resistance. The input parameters required for the calculations include the building geometry and fenestration, design loading, and details of structural members. Conventionally, collating the data is a laborious, inefficient, and error-prone data gathering process that is undertaken manually from drawings and other paperbased documentation prior to the actual analysis. The uptake of ISO standard BIM (Building Information Modelling) has gained a rapid momentum in the industry in recent years. This means more and more architectural and engineering design information will become accessible for sharing with downstream design and analysis applications. This paper investigates what type of information is available from BIM that can be transferred to dedicated software tools for the analysis of composite structures. Additionally, the paper describes the potential application of an open standard legal knowledge model for sharing design parameters prescribed by normative standards. A worked example has been selected to illustrate the data exchange requirements and highlight challenges.

A eclosão do COVID-19 fomentou o estudo empírico do fenômeno criminal, fazendo da pandemia, embora trágica, um grande experimento criminológico. Todavia, no Brasil, o assunto ainda não encontrou a devida repercussão no meio acadêmico, apesar de sua relevância tanto prática quanto teórica. O estudo pretende preencher tal lacuna e engajar no debate internacional, fornecendo análises inéditas acerca do impacto das medidas para conter o avanço da pandemia na incidência criminal na cidade de Belo Horizonte. Para o levantamento dos dados primários, foram utilizados os registros realizados pela Polícia Militar, dos crimes de furtos, roubos e homicídios, de 2016 a 2021, nas modalidades tentadas e consumadas. As séries históricas dos crimes foram compatibilizadas com as semanas epidemiológicas, conforme o calendário da Organização Mundial de Saúde. Os dados relativos à variação relativa na mobilidade de pessoas foram obtidos através do Google Mobility. Os modelos apresentaram R2 ajustado de 0,7983 para furtos, 0,7943 para roubos e 0,1528 para homicídios. Os resultados indicam que, embora a teoria das atividades de rotina proponha a correlação entre mobilidade urbana e os crimes de furto, roubo e homicídios, há significância estatística para os dois primeiros, mas não para o crime de homicídios.

Recent advances in mathematical modelling and numerical analysis of the pyrolysis of char forming solid fuels have shed new light on the pyrolytic behaviour of these materials under fire conditions. A review of the pyrolysis models of charring solid fuels developed over the past 30 years is presented in the order of increasing complexity. The models can be broadly categorised into thermal and comprehensive type models. While thermal models predict the conversion of the virgin fuel into products based on a critical pyrolysis criterion and the energy balance, the comprehensive models describe the degradation of the fuel by a chemical kinetic scheme coupled with the conservation equations for the transport of heat and/or mass. A variety of kinetic schemes have been reported in the literature ranging from simple one-step global reactions to semi-global and multi-step reaction mechanisms. There has been much less uniformity in the description of the transport phenomena (i.e. heat and mass) in comprehensive models and different levels of approximation have been used. It is shown that the accuracy of pyrolysis models largely depends on the model parameters. If reliable data are not available, even the most advanced models give poor predictions.

Fundamental pyrolysis thermal and kinetics properties for live vegetation that are essential to CFD modeling of pyrolysis and flammability were obtained from a series of small-scale tests for live and dead vegetation. The complexity of live leaf composition was recently documented allowing analysis of 12 crude compounds. Model simplification required a practical grouping into contents of (0) moisture, (1) lipids, (2) digestives (glucose, fructose, and protein), (3) hemicellulose (xylan and pectin), (4) glucan (cellulose and starch), (5) phenolic (lignin and tannins), and (6) inert (silicate and mineral), along with the use of higher reaction orders to accommodate the wide pyrolysis peaks, and of bi-production of volatiles (tar/gas) and char from each pyrolysis group. Extensive TGA tests in nitrogen and air were used to derive oxidative pyrolysis kinetics of the celluloses and of the char, which is also suitable for smolder modeling. Moisture desorption was based on phase change kine...

On May 21th 2014 a truck blew out a tyre and crashed into the wall of the Heinenoordtunnel nearby Barendrecht, The Netherlands. On impact the truck instantly caught fire and slided over more than 75 meters to the lowest point of the tunnel. The Rotterdam-Rijnmond Fire Department, the Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment (owner of the tunnel) and Efectis Netherlands BV collected information about this recent fire, focussed on fire fighting operations, communication during the incident, fire development in the tunnel and the performance of tunnel safety measures like escape doors, ventilation system and tunnel lining. The Fire Departments Investigation Team collected information in the tunnel, about the origin and specific development of the fire, the performance of the tunnel safety measures, like escape doors and fire fighting equipment. The Ministry collected data from the traffic cameras in the tunnel. These cameras recorded the accident, large parts of the evacuation and th...

Learning Outcomes Through this chapter, we expect readers to 1. Understand fire occurrence and effects, starting with temporal dynamics at points, and then expanding to landscapes including both space and time, 2. Describe the potential, uncertainty, and limitations for the different data sources used for describing recurring fires as fire regimes, 3. Critique the statement that "the ways in which climate, vegetation, and people drove historical fire regimes may hold important lessons for understanding what makes ecosystems resilient and managing them to adapt for the future", 4. Link fire effects on landscapes to landscape management, and 5. Describe one key theme common to two or three of the illustrative examples from around the globe used in this chapter.