Morphological evolution

Our prehistoric-human ancestors evolved from their tail-less ape group including chimpanzees, orangutans and gorillas as a result of greater clash and cohesion experienced by the prehistoric-humans. “They were quite adept at running and jumping and could easily jump from one tree to another, just like the other creatures of the ape group,” explains Dharma guru Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar. “Civilizations have been advancing through clash and cohesion. Human beings are racking their brains in the search for new ways to win battles, and thus their brain cells are developing.” “Where does the thought which causes evolutionary change originate? It originates in the nerve cells. The human mind has two functions – thinking and memorizing. The more the thinking capacity increases the more the power of memory develops. The nerve cells also change, leading to a corresponding change in the nerve fibers. These changes create a stir and a revolution in the world of thought. Human beings started thinking, ‘Who am I? Where have I come from? Where shall I go hereafter?’ No other creature thinks like this – only humans have the power of contemplation.” Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar (1921-1990) was a spiritual teacher in the tradition of Shiva and Krishna, and founded the international socio-spiritual organization Ananda Marga (“the Path of Bliss”).

1] Plants and animals affect morphological evolution in many environments. The term ''ecogeomorphology'' describes studies that address such effects. In this opinion article we use the term ''biomorphodynamics'' to characterize a subset of ecogeomorphologic studies: those that investigate not only the effects of organisms on physical processes and morphology but also how the biological processes depend on morphology and physical forcing. The two-way coupling precipitates feedbacks, leading to interesting modes of behavior, much like the coupling between flow/sediment transport and morphology leads to rich morphodynamic behaviors. Select examples illustrate how even the basic aspects of some systems cannot be understood without considering biomorphodynamic coupling. Prominent examples include the dynamic interactions between vegetation and flow/ sediment transport that can determine river channel patterns and the multifaceted biomorphodynamic feedbacks shaping tidal marshes and channel networks. These examples suggest that the effects of morphology and physical processes on biology tend to operate over the timescale of the evolution of the morphological pattern. Thus, in field studies, which represent a snapshot in the pattern evolution, these effects are often not as obvious as the effects of biology on physical processes. However, numerical modeling indicates that the influences on biology from physical processes can play a key role in shaping landscapes and that even local and temporary vegetation disturbances can steer large-scale, long-term landscape evolution. The prevalence of biomorphodynamic research is burgeoning in recent years, driven by societal need and a confluence of complex systems-inspired modeling approaches in ecology and geomorphology. To make fundamental progress in understanding the dynamics of many landscapes, our community needs to increasingly learn to look for two-way, biomorphodynamic feedbacks and to collect new types of data to support the modeling of such emergent interactions.

On 18 September 2003, Hurricane Isabel made landfall along the Outer Banks of North Carolina and created a breach in the barrier island chain south of Cape Hatteras. The breach isolated the community of Hatteras Village by washing out a 500-m section of North Carolina State Highway 12 (NC12). To rapidly assess breach geomorphology, document short-term morphological evolution, and to collect data in support of coastal modeling efforts, a series of high-density topographic and bathymetric surveys were performed. The unique three-dimensional (3D) survey design utilizes real-time kinematic GPS and ultra shallow-water singlebeam and multibeam sonar technologies. The integration of these technologies with specialized acquisition and processing techniques allows for a seamless merger of high-resolution beach and nearshore data within the surf zone. Processing the approximately 1.5 million data points into accurate 3D digital elevation models (DEMs), representing shoreline topography and nearshore bathymetry with strong anisotropy, provides a unique challenge that is handled with specialized interpolation algorithms used in both proprietary and open source GIS. Rapid 3D processing and GIS integration provided the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Wilmington District office with information to assess and engineer the breach closure and provided researchers of coastal processes with information that could not be adequately captured with traditional 2D techniques.

Mineral magnetic and soil iron oxide data are applied to questions of relative age correlation of alluvial fans and lake sediments in the Tabernas basin, southeast Spain, within a context of interaction between tectonics and climatic change. Within the Tabernas basin, the sediment sequences and morphological evolution of late Quaternary alluvial fans suggest climatic change as the primary control. The fans toe out at the upper margins of a former lake, created in response to tectonic uplift. Magnetic and iron oxide data from soils, particularly dithionite-extractable iron (Fe d ), and frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility (v FD %) accord with the relative age relationships suggested by more conventional field-based geomorphic observations. Magnetic data from the lake sediments suggest the main provenance characteristics of the sediments, but also reveal a shift in sediment sources towards the end of the lake period (probably during the late Pleistocene) to sediment supplied from a more active fluvial system from soil erosion within the Sierra de los Filabres part of the catchment.

Conrad Waddington published an influential model for evolution in his 1942 paper, Canalization of Development and Inheritance of Acquired Characters. In this classic, albeit controversial, paper, he proposed that an unknown mechanism exists that conceals phenotypic variation until the organism is stressed. Recent studies have proposed that the highly conserved chaperone Hsp90 could function as a "capacitor," or an "adaptively inducible canalizer," that masks silent phenotypic variation of either genetic or epigenetic origin. This review will discuss evidence for, and arguments against, the role of Hsp90 as a capacitor for morphological evolution, and as a key component of what we call "Waddington's widget."

Parabasalia represents a complex assemblage of species, which recently received extensive reorganization. The newly created order Cristamonadida unites complex hypermastigids belonging to the Lophomonadida like the joeniids, the multinucleate polymonad Calonymphidae, and well-developed trichomonads in the Devescovinidae. All these protists exclusively occur in the guts of termites and related insects. In this study, small subunit rRNA and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase genes were identified without cultivation from 14 species in Cristamonadida including previously unstudied genera such as Joenina, Joenia, Joenoides, Macrotrichomonas, Gigantomonas, and Foaina. Despite the great morphological diversity of Cristamonadida, our phylogenetic analyses supported the monophyly of this order. However, almost all the families and subfamilies composing this order are polyphyletic suggesting a complicated morphological evolution. Our analyses also showed that Cristamonadida descends from one lineage of rudimentary trichomonads and that joeniids was basal in this order. Several successive and independent morphological transitions such as the development and reduction of flagellar apparatus and associated cytoskeleton and transition to multinucleated status have likely led to the diversity and complexity of cristamonad lineages.

A screening for iridoid compounds of 78 of 315 species from all major groups in Gronoviaceae and Loasaceae has been carried out. The results were compared to the systematic concepts in the family and distribution and ecology of the taxa. Iridoids are present in at least some species of all genera screened. Some simple, monomeric compounds (e.g., loganin, sweroside) are found in all major groups of the two families and represent the basic iridoid inventory. Other compounds are restricted to certain taxonomic groups: ninecarbon iridoids (e.g., deutzioside) are restricted to Mentzelia (Loasaceae subfam. Mentzelioideae), hetero-oligomeric iridoids (e.g., tricoloroside methyl ester, acerifolioside) are restricted to two small groups in Loasa (Loasa ser. Macrospermae and ser. Floribundae, Loasaceae subfam. Loasoideae), and oleosides (e.g., 10-hydroxyoleoside dimethyl ester) are restricted to the large genus Caiophora sensu Weigend). The distribution of certain iridoid compounds thus confirms some of the generic limits. Iridoid phytochemistry does not correlate with systematic entities above the generic level nor does it in any way correlate with the morphological evolution of taxa. Conversely, the amount and complexity of iridoid compounds present in taxa correlate positively with the aridity of their habitat and the extent of mammalian herbivore pressure.

The investigation on " Morphological variations in Teak (Tectona grandis L. f.) clones " was carried out at Rajpipla Silviculture Forest Division, Rajpipla, ASPEE College of Horticulture and Forestry, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari (Gujarat). The experiment comprised of 15 clones viz. East) and C15-Khatam (Rajpipla East). This experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD) comprising of fifteen clones and three replications. Significantly maximum plant height, diameter at breast height and 100 seed weight was noted in clone C7-Achhala (Godhra); leaf length in the clone C8-Kevadi (Chotaudepur); leaf width in the clone C13-Bhavnath (Junagadh); leaf area in the clone C14-Develvel (Gir East); petiole length in the clone C15-Khatam (Rajpipla East) and seed yield per plant C13-Bhavnath (Junagadh). The genotypic correlation coefficients were in general, higher than the corresponding phenotypic and environmental indicating strong inherent association between the characters. Seed yield had highly significant positive correlation with leaf width (rg= 0.3315). Whereas, seed yield had highly significant negative correlation with petiole length (rg=-0.4024) and diameter at breast height (rg=-0.3078). The rest of the traits showed non-significant positive or negative correlation. Path coefficient analysis indicated that the direct effect of diameter at breast height and petiole length on seed yield was of very high magnitude followed by leaf width.

The western L'Aquila Basin recorded in Quaternary times two well distinguished phases of intramontane basin fill, concomitant with uplift of Central Apennines and characterized by diverse Large Mammal assemblages. The first phase was dominated by alluvial fan and lacustrine-palustrine sedimentation, respectively Gelasian and Calabrian in age, that took place within an internally-drained, fault controlled, hydrographic system. A late Villafranchian-earliest Galerian Large Mammal assemblage, approximately 1.3e1.1 Ma, pertains to this phase and includes: Mammuthus meridionalis, Stephanorhinus etruscus and the large cervid Arvernoceros aff. A. giulii.

Considerable progress has been made recently in characterising the patterns displayed by the anabranches of braided rivers. However, the physical processes of sediment scour, transfer and deposition that govern the generation and evolution of anabranch channels remain largely unexplained. Direct measurement of three-dimensional flow fields and morphological evolution of the anabranches in the braided Brahmaputra-Jamuna River, Bangladesh, were undertaken to investigate the interactions between fluvial processes and anabranch morphology. These data were used to elucidate the circumstances leading to the bifurcation of a single channel, which is a topic of fundamental importance to understanding the physical processes responsible for braiding. Results indicate that division of the velocity field into multiple threads within a single channel precedes a division in the cross-sectional morphology of the channel and appears to be a necessary prerequisite for development of a bifurcation. An empirical relationship was established to discriminate between channels with single and multi-thread velocity fields, based on the depth-to-width ratio and specific energy of the flow at a representative channel cross-section. This function requires further validation, but could be used to predict the conditions under which a single channel is likely to bifurcate to produce two anabranches.

Deep-seated mass-movements of different types affect the Pizzotto–Greci slope in northwest Calabria, Italy. The slope is carved out of phyllitic rocks capped by gneissic layers. Its geological structure is extremely complicated by tectonic structures that pervasively cross the slope transversely and downslope. A large-scale gravitational deformation of sackung type affects the slope. On the upslope side a debris-flow source area

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Giraffes have long fascinated and intrigued us. For centuries, kings and emperors gave them as gifts, and their extraordinary height and long necks have inspired countless myths and legends. Some 150 years ago, Darwin suggested that these lofty creatures evolved to take advantage of the leaves at the tops of trees – a suggestion that has become the
accepted explanation for the animal’s remarkable morphology. A chance encounter with male giraffes doing battle, however, set biologist Rob Simmons thinking about alternative theories for how and why the world’s tallest animal came to be.

Many filament eruptions can be suitably described in the framework of the kink instability model, although it is not always easy to discriminate whether the helical flux rope writhes due to new emerging flux or to photospheric horizontal motions. In this paper we provide observational evidence of the important role which can be played by horizontal motions in filament instability and eruption. More precisely, we describe the analysis of the eruption of a reverseS shaped filament associated with a flare of class M6.3, that occurred on 15 June, 2001 in the active region NOAA 9502. Using TRACE 195 Å images we studied the morphological evolution of the EUV filament channel. Using 1 minute cadence MDI full-disc longitudinal magnetograms we analyzed the magnetic evolution of the entire active region. The geometrical parameters of the EUV filament channel and the horizontal velocities in the areas corresponding to the filament footpoints were determined and agreed with the kink instability. Moreover, the analysis of MDI magnetograms showed that a sudden and strong increase in the magnetic helicity transport rate to the corona preceded and accompanied the filament eruption. During the same time interval, on the one hand the emergence of magnetic flux in both polarities became negligible, but on the other hand the velocity pattern at the filament ends showed horizontal, counterclockwise motions, which could make a significant contribution to the transformation, from twist to writhe, of the magnetic helicity accumulated along the filament before its eruption. This result seems to indicate that in this event the transport of magnetic helicity exceeding the limit for the kink instability is primarily due to photospheric motions, while the contribution from the emerging flux is negligible.

The Nassophorea and Prostomatea are two of the key classes in understanding the morphological diversification and higher classification of the phylum Ciliophora. However, their phylogenetic relationships with other ciliate groups within the subphylum Intramacronucleata remain elusive. In this study, we investigated the small and large subunit (SSU and LSU) rRNA gene-based phylogeny of these groups with sequences of additional taxa including several key species. The results show that: (1) the class Nassophorea remains polyphyletic, with the microthoracids clustering with the Phyllopharyngea, whereas the nassulids represent a basal group of the CONthreeP superclade in the SSU tree; (2) the Prostomatea is not depicted as a monophyletic group in phylogenetic trees, and the monophyly of this class is marginally rejected by statistical tree topology tests; (3) the nassulid genus Parafurgasonia is more closely related to the family Colpodidiidae than to Furgasonia; (4) Paranassula, which was previously thought to be a nassulid, is phylogenetically related to the oligohymenophorean peniculids in both the SSU and LSU trees; (5) the microthoracid genus Discotricha does not group with the other microthoracids in either SSU or LSU trees; (6) the family Plagiocampidae is closely related to the prostome parasite Cryptocaryon irritans and to the family Urotrichidae in the order Prorodontida; and (7) the family Placidae, represented by Placus salinus, is sister to the family Holophryidae in the order Prorodontida. Based on the present data, we consider the genus Discotricha to be an unclassified taxon within the CONthreeP. We also propose resurrecting the order Paranassulida and classifying it within the subclass Peniculia, class Oligohymenophorea. Primary and secondary structure signatures for higher taxa within Phyllopharyngea and Nassophorea are supplied.

1] The long-term morphological evolution of tidal landforms in response to physical and ecological forcings is a subject of great theoretical and practical importance. Toward the goal of a comprehensive theoretical framework suitable for large-scale, long-term applications, we set up a mathematical model of tidal channel network initiation and early development, which is assumed to act on timescales considerably shorter than those of other landscape-forming ecomorphodynamical processes of tidal systems. A hydrodynamic model capable of describing the key landforming features in small tidal embayments is coupled with a morphodynamic model which retains the description of the main physical processes responsible for tidal channel initiation and network ontogeny. The overall model is designed for the further direct inclusion of the chief ecomorphological mechanisms, e.g., related to vegetation dynamics. We assume that water surface elevation gradients provide key elements for the description of the processes that drive incision, in particular the exceedance of a stability (or maintenance) shear stress. The model describes tidal network initiation and its progressive headward extension within tidal flats through the carving of incised cross sections, where the local shear stress exceeds a predefined, possibly site-dependent threshold value. The model proves capable of providing complex network structures and of reproducing several observed characteristics of geomorphic relevance. In particular, the synthetic networks generated through the model meet distinctive network statistics as, among others, unchanneled length and area probability distributions.

Despite the potential model role of the green algal genus Codium for studies of marine speciation and evolution, there have been difficulties with species delimitation and a molecular phylogenetic framework was lacking. In the present study, 74 evolutionarily significant units (ESUs) are delimited using 227 rbcL exon 1 sequences obtained from specimens collected throughout the genus' range. Several morpho-species were shown to be poorly defined, with some clearly in need of lumping and others containing pseudo-cryptic diversity. A phylogenetic hypothesis of 72 Codium ESUs is inferred from rbcL exon 1 and rps3-rpl16 sequence data using a conventional nucleotide substitution model (GTR + C + I), a codon position model and a covariotide (covarion) model, and the fit of a multitude of substitution models and alignment partitioning strategies to the sequence data is reported. Molecular clock tree rooting was carried out because outgroup rooting was probably affected by phylogenetic bias. Several aspects of the evolution of morphological features of Codium are discussed and the inferred phylogenetic hypothesis is used as a framework to study the biogeography of the genus, both at a global scale and within the Indian Ocean.

Geoduck clams have become the most profitable emerging fishery resource in Northwest Mexico, with profits of more than US$30 million during the last few years. The fishery targets two species-Panopea globosa in the Gulf of California and Panopea generosa on the Pacific coast of Baja California-but is managed indistinctively. Despite its growing importance, scientific research on the basic biology of the Mexican stocks has been inexistent until recently. A major gap in knowledge is the interspecific distinction in structural and functional biological attributes. Consequently, the aim of this article is to provide the biological basis of phenotypic (morphometric) and genetic distinction between P. globosa and P. generosa to assist in their management and conservation. We found that P. generosa from the Pacific coast of Baja California is significantly smaller than P. globosa from the northern Gulf of California in shell length, width, and height (t-tests, P < 0.0001), and that shell width and height scale differently to length in both species. Multivariate analyses (multidimensional scaling) provided additional support (stress ¼ 0.04) to the species and geographical distinction. Genetic data from the nuclear ribosomal DNA provided contrasting results between polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphisms and direct sequencing. Ribosomal DNA sequences revealed higher diversity (haplotype and nucleotide) in P. globosa. Standing in sharp contrast with the low intraspecific divergence, was the very large genetic differentiation between species in excess of 20% corrected Kimura 2-parameter sequence divergence and accounting for 98% of the molecular variance of both species. This differentiation was found to be of consequence for novel methods of molecular species identification and for the interpretation of the phylogeography and evolution of Panopea in the North Pacific. The relevance of our findings goes to the heart of filling a major information gap pertaining to the distinction of both species. Scientific and lay stakeholders of these valuable resources need to ascertain and acknowledge this distinction to adopt sustainable management and exploitation practices.

We describe experiments to investigate the rst stages in the evolution of small (100-200 ¹m) ice crystals levitated in air at temperatures and humidities characteristic of fully glaciated stratiform clouds. We nd that in these conditions particle morphology is not uniquely determined by environmental temperature and humidity as has commonly been assumed; other parameters, such as the mode of ice initiation, appear to have important effects on particle shape. Crystals grown from frozen droplets at vapour excesses of less than about 0.05 g m ¡3 adopt isometric compact habits at temperatures above ¡22 ± C, while polycrystals dominate at lower temperatures. In contrast, crystals grown under similar conditions from frost 'seeds' usually develop into pristine hexagonal prisms with varying aspect ratios. An increasing fraction of frozen droplets develop into ' orid' crystals, containing thin side-planes, at higher supersaturations. This mix of particle types is similar to that found in eld studies of cold clouds. The change in morphology from compact hexagon to ' orid' with increasing growth rate de nes a facet instability transition, from which we infer a lower limit for the critical supersaturation for layer nucleation on the prism facet to be 2.4% at ¡15 ± C and 3.1% at ¡25 ± C. We develop a simple analytic model for the size dependence of facet stability and show its predictions compare well with the data.

In order to observe the morphological evolution of the Olympic Weight Lifting National Team, 10 Argentine weight lifter males (aged between 19 to 25 years in 1991) were tested from 1991 to 1998. Their morphological measurements like skinfolds, girths and body weight (BW) were taken three times a year. To this purpose, a Harpenden skinfold caliper, a Lufkin measuring tape and a Toledo electronic scale were used. Sloan and Siri equations were used to determine the relative body fat mass (RBFM) and free fat mass (FFM). The best Olympic overall (the sum of clean and jerk performances in official tournaments) for each year was considered as the maximal lifting capacity (MLC). The results of this study (Mean ± SD) showed that an improvement of MLC went along with an increase of BW: 83,65% ± 8.62% increased their BW. A morphological adaptation was observed with this BW increment: 66,75 % ± 26.55 % of the weight lifters that increased their MLC and BW also increased the RBFM. From this group a portion of lifters (31.67 % ± 20.3 %) was at a level considered “not optimum” by the standards of scientific studies with high level weight lifters (5 - 12 % of fat). The exceeding of fat mass in the percentage registered in this specific group was 0,8 to 7,5 %. According to these results, we can conclude that the weight lifters improve the performance as their morphology is modified in a particular way: the increment of body weight is not only due to an increase in muscular mass, but also to an increase in adipose mass; all in a range that can not always be considered optimum or ideal for this high performance sport. The hypothesis would be that the lifters add large amounts of fat weight just prior to competition with the premise that the additional weight will lower their center of gravity and give them a greater mechanical advantage in the lifting. The acceleration of the bar in the drop is higher at a lower center of gravity. Taking into account that in Argentina there is not a large sample of weight lifters, these relations with the performance should continue being studied specifically in larger samples in each category of body weight.

Metriorhynchids were a peculiar group of fully marine Mesozoic crocodylomorphs, some of which reached large body size and were probably apex predators. The estimation of their total body length in the past has proven problematic. Rigorous size estimation was provided using five complete metriorhynchid specimens, by means of regression equations derived from basicranial and femoral length against total body length. The use of the Alligator femoral regression equation as a proxy to estimate metriorhynchid total body length led to a slight underestimation, whereas cranial regression equations of extant genera resulted in an overestimation of body length. Therefore, the scaling of crania and femora to total body length of metriorhynchids is noticeably different from that of extant crocodylians, indicating that extant crocodylians are not ideal proxies for size reconstruction of extinct taxa that deviate from their semi-aquatic morphotype. The lack of a correlation between maximum, minimum, or the range of generic body lengths with species richness demonstrates that species diversification is driven by factors other than just variation in body size. Maximum likelihood modelling also found no evidence for directionality in body size evolution. However, niche partitioning in Metriorhynchidae is mediated not only by craniodental differentiation, as shown by previous studies, but also by body size variation.

the shell wall and on the apertural side of the septum of various fossil and Recent
ectocochleate cephalopods. In addition to the scars of the cephalic retractors, steinkerns
of the body chambers of bactritoids and some ammonoids from the Moroccan and the
German Emsian (Early Devonian) display various kinds of striations; some of these
striations are restricted to the mural part of the septum, some start at the suture and
terminate at the anterior limit of the annular elevation. Several of these features were also
discovered in specimens of Mesozoic and Recent nautilids. These structures are here
interpreted as imprints of muscle fibre bundles of the posterior and especially the septal
mantle, blood vessels as well as the septal furrow. Most of these structures were not
found in ammonoids younger than Middle Devonian. We suggest that newly formed,
not yet mineralized (or only slightly), septa were more tightly stayed between the more
numerous lobes and saddles in more strongly folded septa of more derived ammonoids
and that the higher tension in these septa did not permit soft-parts to leave imprints
on the organic preseptum. It is conceivable that this permitted more derived ammonoids
to replace the chamber liquid faster by gas and consequently, new chambers could be
used earlier than in other ectocochleate cephalopods, perhaps this process began even
prior to mineralization. This would have allowed faster growth rates in derived
ammonoids.

Morphological integration and modularity are closely related concepts about how different traits of an organism are correlated.  Integration is the overall pattern of intercorrelation, modularity is the partitioning of integration into evolutionarily or developmentally independent blocks of traits.  Modularity and integration are usually studied using quantitative phenotypic data, which can be obtained either from extant or fossil organisms.  Many methods are now available to study integration and modularity, all of which involve the analysis of patterns found in trait correlation or covariance matrices.  We review matrix correlation, random skewers, fluctuating asymmetry, cluster analysis, Euclidean distance matrix analysis (EDMA), graphical modelling, two-block partial least squares, RV coefficients, and theoretical matrix modelling and discuss their similarities and differences.  We also review different coefficients that are used to measure correlations.  We apply all the methods to cranial landmark data from and ontogenetic series of Japanese macaques, Macaca fuscata to illustrate the methods and their individual strengths and weaknesses.  We conclude that the exploratory approaches (cluster analyses of various sorts) were less informative and less consistent with one another than were the results of model testing or comparative approaches.  Nevertheless, we found that competing models of modularity and integration are often similar enough that they are not statistically distinguishable; we expect, therefore, that several models will often be significantly correlated with observed data.

We review the results of the synthesis of IrO 2 nanocrystals (NCs) on different substrates via metal-organic chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD) using (MeCp)(COD)Ir as the source reagent. The surface morphology, structural and spectroscopic properties of the as-deposited NCs were characterized using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), selected-area electron diffractometry (SAD), x-ray diffractometry (XRD), x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Raman spectroscopy. The roles of different substrates for the formation of various textures of nanocrystalline IrO 2 are studied. Several one-dimensional (1D) nanostructures have evolved by decreasing the degree of interface instability. The morphological evolution occurs from triangular/wedged nanorods via incomplete/scrolled nanotubes to square nanotubes and square nanorods (NRs), with increasing morphological stability. The results show that the three-dimensional (3D) grains composing traditional film belong to the most stable form as compared to all the 1D NCs, and the sequential shape evolution has been found to be highly correlated to a morphological phase diagram based on the growth kinetics. In addition, area selective growth of IrO 2 NRs has been demonstrated on sapphire(012) and sapphire(100) substrates which consist of patterned SiO 2 as the nongrowth surface. The initial growth of IrO 2 nuclei is studied. Selectivity, rod orientation, and other morphological features of the nanorod forest can find their origins in the nucleation behaviour during initial growth. XPS analyses show the coexistence of higher oxidation states of iridium in the as-grown IrO 2 NCs. The usefulness of the experimental Raman scattering together with the modified spatial correlation (MSC) model analysis as a residual stress and structural characterization technique for 1D IrO 2 NCs has been demonstrated. The field emission properties of the vertically aligned IrO 2 NRs are studied and demonstrated as a high-performance and robust field emitter material owing to its low work function, low resistivity and excellent stability against oxygen.

An experimental study of the morphological evolution of thermal plumes in turbulent thermal convection is presented. Individual sheetlike plumes are extracted and their area, circumference, and ''heat content'' are found to all exhibit log-normal distributions. As the sheetlike plumes move across the plate they collide and convolute into spiraling swirls. These swirls then spiral away from the plates to become mushroomlike plumes which are accompanied by strong vertical vorticity. The measured profiles of plume numbers and of vertical vorticity quantify the morphological transition of sheetlike plumes to mushroomlike ones and the mixing and merging or clustering of mushroomlike plumes. The fluctuating vorticity is found to have the same exponential distribution and scaling behavior as the fluctuating temperature.

Nanocrystalline Thermoelectric a b s t r a c t Bi 40 Te 60 thermoelectric compound was fabricated via mechanical milling of bismuth and tellurium as starting materials. Effect of the milling time and heat treatment temperatures were investigated. In order to characterize the ball milled powders, the X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used. Thermal behavior of the mechanically alloyed powders was studied by differential thermal analysis (DTA). The morphological evolutions were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Results showed that the nanocrystalline Bi 2 Te 3 compound was formed after 5 h of milling. Further milling (25 h) and heating to 500 • C showed that the synthesized phase was stable during these conditions. Nanocrystalline Bi 2 Te 3 with 9-10 nm mean grain size and flaky morphology (lamellar structure) was obtained at the end of milling.

Hybridization of both plants and animals has innumerably benefitted man. An example of which is the numerous hybrids of Hibiscus rosasinensis which are primarily used for aesthetic purposes because of their colourful flowers. Phenotypic variations can already be observed in various parts of H.rosa-sinensis because of hybridization; hence, it is likely that modifications are occurring on microscopic structures such as the pollen. Through time, such variations could change the frequencies of alleles in the gene pool and could possibly lead to microevolution of the species. This study focused on the determination of variations in pollen grain morphology of ten (10) selected H. rosa-sinensis hybrids from the Institute of Plant Breeding of the University of the Philippines-Los Banos, specifically in terms of pollen aperture, size, shape, length of spine and sculpturing. The pollen shape, type of aperture and sculpturing were determined qualitatively. One-way ANOVA was employed if there is significant difference among the pollen of the hybrids in terms of the said quantitative characters. Pollen shape variation was determined through Elliptic Fourier Coefficient Analysis. Results showed that all hybrids have pantoporate type of aperture, echinate type of sculpturing, and spheroidal shape. Among the characters observed, variation was noted in their pollen size and spine length. Pollen size ranges from large to very large and long to very long spine length. Majority of the hybrids observed (7 out of 10) have very large pollen size and long pollen spines. One (1) hybrid has very large pollen size and short spines while two (2) have large pollen size and short pollen spines. There was also significant difference among the samples in terms of these characters based on statistical analysis. The hybrids with variations (Claire Baltazar x Cely Hermosa, Diamond Star and Vicky) cannot be considered outgroups on the basis of the said quantitative characters alone. Nevertheless, such variations observed should not be discounted as a possible modification in pollen morphology in progress as a result of hybridization.

Morphological relationships among sympatric animal species have often been seen as indirect evidence for competition. Many early ecomorphological studies revealed patterns that were taken as indicating character displacement and character release, driven by competition or lack thereof. These patterns may result from a coevolutionary morphological response or from species sorting according to size. Thus, the relationship between morphology and competition may be crucial for understanding both the morphological evolution of animals and the role of competition in structuring communities. Some earlier research perceived as indicating morphological relationships conditioned by interaction of species was conducted on mammals, particularly carnivores. Subsequent criticism in the ecological literature demonstrated that many of the perceived patterns could not be statistically confirmed, thus calling into question this line of evidence for competition. More recent ecological literature relies on strong statistical analyses and careful consideration both of guild composition and of which morphological traits should be examined. This literature, resting largely on mammals, includes several cases that suggest a coevolutionary morphological response to interspecific competition. These studies have focused on the trophic apparatus directly related to food procurement by mammals-the teeth. Island mammals often show striking morphological patterns, some of which have been interpreted as resulting from release from competition with mainland species that have not reached islands. However, few of these patterns were critically evaluated to demonstrate their support for the hypothesis of character release. Despite several decades of interest and research, many questions regarding competitively induced morphological patterns remain unresolved and require further research. Mammals are especially promising subjects for such research.

This work aims at integrating the understanding of the river geomorphic dynamic into the planning of reservoir operation rules. The case study is a 112 km long reach of the Po river in Italy, from Piacenza to Boretto. The Isola Serafini (IS) gate has served a large run-of-the-river hydroelectricity plant since 1962. The dam blocks a relevant amount of sediments and is the cause, together with intense sand mining, for the river bed incision immediately downstream that has made several navigation and irrigation devices unusable during low flow periods, leading to expensive and recurrent works to restore their functionality. The operational rule of the IS gate was modelled using 4 parameters and a number of experiments were simulated adopting alternative operating policies over a 10year period. A 1D hydraulic numerical model with mobile bed has been used to estimate bed degradation trends. The results show that there is space for a meaningful trade-off between the conflicting objectives of hydropower production and reduction of river bed degradation. The analysis provides operative rules able to effectively tackle river bed incision with moderate loss in hydropower production.

Geodynamical numerical modeling has been combined with crustal structural restoration of the central Pyrenees in order to gain insight into fundamental processes that control the evolution of collisional orogens. Models are based on deformation of the crust by stresses transmitted upward from kinematic basal boundary conditions corresponding to the subduction of part of the lithosphere. The influence of inherited crustal heterogeneities, denudation, subcrustal loads, and crustal mechanical properties, consistent with well-constrained crustal partial restored cross sections of the central Pyrenees, is investigated by progressively incorporating them into model experiments. The primary result inferred from the modeling is that the asymmetry of the central Pyrenees double-wedge, seen as strain partitioning and in the morphological evolution, is a consequence of the asymmetric distribution of inherited crustal heterogeneity. The tectonic style of the central Pyrenees is the result of the inversion of the Early Cretaceous extensional fault system, during the early stages of the collision, and the reactivation of Hercynian heterogeneities during the late stages. Most of the upper crustal mass that entered the orogen during the calculated 165 km of convergence was accommodated by an increase of upper crustal cross sectional area or lost by denudation. To explain the upper crustal mass partitioning, as well as the geometry of the foreland basins and the preservation of synorogenic deposits in piggyback basins, a subduction load has to be applied to the models. Lower crust and mantle lithosphere were consumed by the mantle.

The impact of 50 keV focused Ga þ ion bombardment on semi-insulating GaAs has been investigated at various ion fluences in the range of 6.25 · 10 10 -1.25 · 10 17 ions/cm 2 . As a result, the formation of spherical calotte shaped dots consisting of nearly pure gallium has been observed. The diameter of the calottes is in the range of 100 nm to more than 1 lm with an almost constant aspect ratio of about 0.4. The Ga dot formation promotes decomposition of the Ga-rich surface far below temperatures that have been reported for the thermal decomposition of undisturbed GaAs. The material decomposition occurs exclusively in the implanted regions, leading to micelle like structures on the irradiated surface.

The scincid lizard clade Lerista provides an exceptional model for studying the mode of substantial evolutionary transformations, comprising more than 90 species displaying a remarkable variety of body forms. Patterns of character evolution in this clade, inferred from reconstructed ancestral states, are at least partly consistent with the correlated progression model of macroevolutionary change. At each stage in the transition to a highly elongate, limb-reduced body plan, alterations to the lengths of the forelimb and hind limb are accompanied by compensatory changes in snout-vent length (or vice versa), preserving locomotory ability. Nonetheless, there is evidence for moderate dissociation of hind limb evolution in some lineages, while tail length has evolved effectively independently of the substantial alterations to the lengths of the body and limbs. This indicates a significant role of evolutionary and developmental modularity in the divergence of body form within Lerista, and emphasises the potential variability of the strength of functional constraints within organisms and among lineages. Trends toward a highly elongate, functionally limbless body plan may be attributed primarily to a combination of the interdependence of changes in snout-vent length and limb lengths and the very low probability of re-elaborating structurally reduced limbs. Similar asymmetries in the probabilities of interrelated phenotypic changes may be a significant cause of evolutionary trends resulting in the emergence of higher taxa.

The coupling of sandy beach aquifers with the swash zone in the vicinity of the water table exit point is investigated through simultaneous measurements of the instantaneous shoreline (swash front) location, pore pressures and the water table exit point. The field observations reveal new insights into swash-aquifer coupling not previously gleaned from measurements of pore pressure only. In particular, for the case where the exit point is seaward of the observation point, the pore pressure response is correlated with the distance between the exit point and the shoreline in that when the distance is large the rate of pressure drop is fast and when the distance is small the rate decreases. The observations expose limitations in the existing models describing exit point dynamics which is based only on the force balance on a particle of water at the sand surface and neglects both sub-surface pressures and shoreline proximity. A new modified form of the model is shown to significantly improve model-data comparison through a parameterisation of the effects of capillarity into the aquifer storage coefficient. Observations of the shoreward propagation of the swash-induced pore pressure waves ahead of the runup limit shows that the magnitude of the pressure fluctuation decays exponentially and that there is a linear increase in time lags, behaviour similar to that of tidally induced water table waves. The location of the exit point and the intermittency of wave runup events is also shown to be significant in terms of the shore-normal energy distribution. Seaward of the mean exit point, peak energies are small due to the saturated sand surface within the seepage face limiting pressure fluctuations. Landward of the mean exit point the peak energies grow before decreasing landward of the maximum shoreline position.

Morphodynamic modeling systems are being subjected to a growing development over the last decade and increasingly appear as valuable tools for understanding and predicting coastal dynamics and morphological changes. The recent improvements of a 2DH unstructured grid morphodynamic modeling system are presented in this paper and include the implementation of an adaptive morphodynamic time step, the integration and full coupling of a wave model and the forcing by large scale wave and tide models. This modeling system was first applied to a dissipative wave-dominated beach located on the French coast, where the availability of field data allowed for a fine calibration and validation of wave-induced flows and longshore transport, and an assessment of the various sediment transport formulae. The modeling system was then applied to a very dynamic Portuguese tidal inlet where numerical tests show the computational efficiency of using an adaptive time step. Morphodynamic simulations of this inlet with real wave and tidal forcings resulted in realistic morphological predictions. The two applications show that the improved modeling system is able to predict hydrodynamics, transport and morphological evolutions in complex coastal environments.

Old World orioles (Oriolidae) are medium-sized passerine birds confined largely to forested areas of Africa, Eurasia and Australasia. We present a new complete molecular (mtDNA) subspecies level phylogeny of the Oriolidae including all 113 taxa (35 species) together with a backbone phylogeny of 19 taxa from the main Oriolus clades based on i) 21 nuclear genes, ii) whole mito-genomes, and iii) genomewide ultraconserved elements. We use this phylogeny to assess systematic relationships and the biogeographical history of this avian family. Furthermore, we use morphological measurements to investigate the relationship between size and shape axes and upstream or back-colonization of this extensive island region from Asia. We show that several subspecies or groups of subspecies may warrant species rank and we find a continental example of two morphologically distinct species (O. mellianus/ O. traillii) being genetically very similar. Biogeographically, we confirm previous findings that members of the Oriolidae originated in Australo-Papua. Dispersal out of this area took place around 15 Mya to southeast Asia and Africa, and from Africa to the Palearctic followed by recolonization of the Indonesian and Philippine island region during the Plio-Pleistocene. Recolonisation of the Indonesian and Philippine islands coincided with an increase in body size, which may have facilitated the ability to co-exist with other congenerics.

This article introduces a special issue on evolutionary innovation and morphological novelty, two interrelated themes that have received a remarkable increase of attention over the past few years. We begin with a discussion of the question of whether innovation and novelty represent distinct evolutionary problems that require a distinct conceptualization. We argue that the mechanisms of innovation and their phenotypic results-novelty-can only be properly addressed if they are distinguished from the standard evolutionary themes of variation and adaptation, and we present arguments for making such a distinction. We propose that origination, the first formation of biological structures, is another distinct problem of morphological evolution, and that together with innovation and novelty it constitutes a conceptual complex we call the innovation triad. We define a problem agenda of the triad, which separates the analysis of the initiating conditions from the mechanistic realization of innovation, and we discuss the theoretical problems that arise from treating innovation as distinct from variation. Further, we categorize the empirical approaches that address themes of the innovation triad in recognizing four major strands of research: the morphology and systematics program, the gene regulation program, the epigenetic program, and the theoretical biology program. We provide examples of each program, giving priority to contributions in the present issue. In conclusion, we observe that the innovation triad is one of the defining topics of EvoDevo research and may represent its most pertinent contribution to evolutionary theory. We point out that an inclusion of developmental systems properties into evolutionary theory represents a shift of explanatory emphasis from the external factors of natural selection to the internal dynamics of developmental systems, complementing adaptation with emergence, and contingency with inherency.

-Evoluzione delle caratteristiche morfologiche del cavallo Bardigiano. Sono stati elaborati i dati relativi alle misure lineari (altezza al garrese, circonferenza toracica e dello stinco, lunghezza della spalla) e agli indici morfologici (i. di anamorfosi, i. dattilo-toracico) di 3668 cavalli Bardigiani iscritti al LG, nati fra il 1955 ed il 2001, al fine di mettere in evidenza l'evoluzione nel corso degli anni delle caratteristiche morfologiche. È stata messa in evidenza una iniziale riduzione dell'altezza al garrese, che negli ultimi 30 anni tende però a rimanere costante, una diminuzione significativa della circonferenza toracica (P<0,05), dello stinco (P<0,001), dell'indice di anamorfosi (P<0,05) e dell'indice dattilo-toracico (P<0,01). Le variazioni sono apparse più intense nei maschi. La morfologia verso la quale l'indice di selezione attuale si orienta, determinerà la produzione di animali più leggeri e di tipo mesomorfo.

The tenet that ecological adaptation can lead to recurrent ecomorphological
trends resulting from repetitive processes has long been a primary topic of investigation
in evolutionary ecology. To explore this aspect further, this study provides
an analysis of the morphological diversity in chondrostoms (Cyprinidae).
This freshwater fish group shows a tendency towards bottom-feeding specialization,
which has led to evolutionary innovations in body and mouth shape traits,
which are currently used for the classification of genera. Body, lower lip (LL) and
corner ray shape were analysed for nine species in total. Allometric relationships
among the three morphometric traits were considered to be responsible for LL
shape variability and there was significant covariation between LL and body
shape, which reflected habitat use. Smaller and opportunistic-feeding species
inhabiting stream or small-sized rivers were characterized by a deeper body
(increased feeding maneuverability), an arched LL and a terminal mouth position.
Conversely, larger and diet-specialized species were characterized by a fusiform
body (increased swimming performance), a straight LL and an inframouth position
on an elongated snout (optimized bottom feeding). The results suggest that
interspecific mouth shape variability may have originated from two types of
‘deformation’ processes, both leading to a straight mouth shape and acting either
jointly or independently. Also, given the plesiomorphic state of several of the
species under study, the specialization towards a benthic lifestyle in chondrostoms
from different phylogenetic lineages is thought to have occurred repeatedly to
overcome a number of functional constraints, including foraging efficiency and
swimming performance.

In his extraordinary work, On Growth and Form, D'Arcy Thompson (1961[1917]) set forth a framework for the analysis of morphological forms that still serves as inspiration for research on this topic. Thompson realized that complex forms may originate from simple principles—a theme that has returned with the now-familiar example of a fern leaf as a fractal image—that is, as geometric and topological aspects of form expressed through development. Some of his ideas led to incorporation of quantitative measurement in morphological studies, for example, the study of allometric relationships. It is striking, though, that his qualitative approach has served so well as a source of understanding of morphological form and as inspiration for new ap-proaches to the study of form. This seeming timelessness suggests that we may do well to rethink how the study of the morphological form can be approached using Thompson's theme of seeing the underlying simplicity in what is an otherwise complex form.

This chapter begins with a brief review of the conceptual framework that Thompson set out for the study of growth and form. It then uses the review to introduce, in more detail, two themes in the study of form: representation of form, often in terms of the boundary of a form, and comparison of forms seen as a transformation of one form into the other.  Ann example based on hominid teeth then serves to highlight a general problem not specifically addressed by these two themes; namely, the role of growth in the development of biological form.  A synthesis between growth, taken as producing form, and the analytical study of form, including comparison and transformation of form, is presented ad its implications explored.  It is shown by example that using a biologically nonrelevant representation of the geometry of a form expressed in terms of homologous points leads to erroneous conclusions about shape versus size differences between forms.  The need of a coordi-nate-free representation of the boundary of a form is discussed and such a representation, a curve based on inherent geometric properties, is outlined.  The coordinate-free representation suggests a more qualitative approach to comparison of forms in terms of regions of maximum curvature, convexity versus concavity, and so on, in the boundary.  The chapter concludes by returning to Thompson’s concern with what constitutes legitimate comparison.

Biological evolution is produced by the desires of biological species as well as by Macrocosmic conation, claims Prabhat Rainjan Sarkar in this remarkable discourse. “And in the case of collective structures, regarding these psycho-physical longings, if it is seen that the collective body of a particular nature of living being or expression does not like it, then the controlling faculty creates a sort of change and metamorphosis in the physical structure, and as a result the nature of the longings also changes.” “And in a collective body, the collective controlling faculty may create a sort of change in the physical structures if such a change is supported by Macrocosmic conation, otherwise not.” P. R. Sarkar, (1921-1990), was a spiritual teacher (also known as Shrii Shrii Anandamurti) in the tradition of Shiva and Krishna, who founded the socio-spiritual movement Ananda Marga (“the Path of Bliss”).  –  Richard Gauthier, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Santa Rosa Junior College, Santa Rosa, California, USA, April 30, 2021.

The relationships between different spicule lineages of Demospongae are revised through the ontogenetic study of the main spicules of the genera Crambe and Discorhabdella. The presence of terminal orifices in the basal spines of the asterose acanthostyles of Discorhabdella, and the actines of the desmas of Crambe have been shown by examining young spicules under high magnification. Thus, the polyaxonid origin of both spicule types is hereby supported by the ontogenetic information, and their homology is also supported by their equivalent arrangement in the skeleton. The current differences in shape between both spicule types are considered the result of a divergent morphological evolution from an ancestral polyactinal corpuscle, by the atrophyihypertrophy of a different number of actines. Arguments are also presented to support the homology of these two spicule types with the sphaeroclons of Vetulina, and other fossil genera. Moreover, the presence of axial canals inside the tubercles of the tuberose tylostyles of Discorhabdella and Crambe tuberosa indicates that the tubercles are actually atrophied actines as in the case of the hadromerid genus Terpios. According to the ontogeny, the tuberose morphology of these spicules may correspond to the retention of an ancestral characteristic in the Poecilosclerida and Hadromerida; in this case, a monophyletic origin, is suggested between both taxa. From the overall results here presented, the tetraxonid spicule, presently considered by most authors as the primitive morphotype, as well as some monaxons, could be considered as evolving from a polyaxial form.

The Tursi-Rabatana historical site is very representative of the cultural heritage of Basilicata, Southern Italy. Morphological evolution of the landscape is characterized by very intense erosive phenomena such as landslides, deep gullies, rills, and piping, which affect the perimeter of urban settlements and threaten the conservation of these sites. Rainfalls and the lithology of the substratum are the main factors to which the landscape evolution is linked, triggering landslide and linear erosion phenomena. Climate analysis carried out during the last century showed an increasing trend in the rainfall intensity over extremely short periods. This condition also induced an increase in the vulnerability level of the slopes. Integrated analysis between territorial data (geology, geomorphology, climate) and historical documents showed that, at least from the last century, the geomorphological hazard has been accentuated by the intense human activity of cave excavation along several fronts under the present urban area. The geophysical investigation also permitted the mapping of shallow caves and tunnels in the subsurface reconstructing the multilevel complex hypogeal system. This work also produced evidence that the human interventions occurring during the historical period have been a determining factor in increasing the hazard level and accelerating the preexisting morphological processes.

Over the course of the past century it has become increasingly difficult to find athletes of the size and shape required to compete successfully at the highest level. Sport is Darwinian in that only the &amp;#39;fittest&amp;#39; reach the highest level of participation. Not every physical characteristic could be expected to play a role in this selection process, but two that are important and for which substantial data assemblies exist, are height and mass. Measurements of elite athlete sizes were obtained from a variety of sources as far back as records allowed. We charted the shift in these anthropometric characteristics of elite sportspeople over time, against a backdrop of secular changes in the general population. Athletes in many sports have been getting taller and more massive over time; the rates of rise outstripping those of the secular trend. In open-ended sports, more massive players have an advantage. Larger players average longer careers and obtain greater financial rewards. In some sports it is equally difficult to find athletes small enough to compete. In contrast, there are sports that demand a narrow range of morphological characteristics. In these sports the size of the most successful athletes over the century has remained constant, despite the drift in the population characteristics from which they are drawn. A number of social factors both drive and are driven by the search for athletes of increasingly rare morphology. These include globalisation and international recruitment, greater financial and social incentives, and the use of special training methods and artificial growth stimuli. In many sports the demand for a specific range in body size reinforces the need to adopt questionable and illegal behaviours to reach the required size and shape to compete at the top level. Future scenarios also include &amp;#39;gene-farming&amp;#39; through assortative mating and athlete gamete banks.

The detailed 3D geometry of normal fault planes is described and analysed using datasets from outcrop studies (2D), seismic surveys (3D) and analogue models (4D). Different geometric con®gurations of simple isolated normal faults are studied by reference to processes of normal fault propagation. When a normal fault propagates without interacting with other fault zones, the entire border of the principal plane displays characteristic connected secondary structures. These secondary structures cause bifurcations of the principal fault terminations. The along-strike terminations of the principal plane display typical bifurcation con®gurations (`ear geometry`). The orientation of the bifurcations depends on the vertical direction of propagation (downwards and/or upwards). The along-dip terminations display en e Âchelon secondary fault planes linked to the principal plane and are described as`lobate geometry'. A 3D genetic model of isolated normal fault geometry is proposed with a new general terminology for the secondary structures. When two isolated normal faults propagate towards each other and overlap, the two principal planes connect up via a relay fault. The resulting geometry is a longer fault exhibiting a characteristic undulation with two inactive branches. q

A comparison of 1927, 1970 and 2002 bathymetric surveys in the Lagoon of Venice was used to reconstruct historical changes in sedimentation. A detailed GIS-based analysis of the charts revealed the timing and pattern of geomorphic changes and allowed calculation of sediment deposition and erosion for the entire lagoon and each of its four sub-basins: Treporti, Lido, Malamocco and Chioggia. Two main developments are discernible from comparative observation of the areal distribution of the main elevation ranges: the diminution in area of the saltmarshes, which decreased by more than 50%, from 68 km 2 in 1927 to 32 km 2 in 2002, and the progressive deepening of the lagoon, with a huge increase in the area of subtidal flats (between -0.75 and -2.00 m depth), from 88 to 206 km 2 during the same period. Generally, the lagoon showed a clear-cut change in the most frequent depths (modal depth) from a value of -0.62 m in 1927 to -0.88 m in 2002. The deepening of the lagoon affected mostly the lagoonal sub-basins south of the town of Venice, where modal depth increased from -0.65 m to -1.12 m in Lido, from -0.64 to -1.75 m in Malamocco and from -0.39 m to -0.88 m in Chioggia. Large changes in lagoonal morphology were caused by human-induced subsidence, the dredging of navigation channels between 1927 and 1970, and intense natural erosion enhanced by sediment re-suspension due to Manila clam fishing between 1970 and 2002. There was a net loss of about 110 Mm 3 of sediment from the lagoon, most of which (73 Mm 3 , ca.70%) was in the earlier period. A significant amount was lost by dredging and direct disposal outside the system, either on land or at sea, and there was a net loss of 39 Mm 3 from the lagoon to the sea through the inlets, at an annual rate of 0.5 Mm 3 . Comparison of erosion rates in the two periods revealed an alarming acceleration, from a net sediment loss of 0.3 Mm 3 y -1 in the period 1927-1970 to 0.8 Mm 3 y -1 in 1970-2002. Deterioration caused a shift from a highly differentiated lagoon morphology in the 1930s to a sediment-starved and subsidence-dominated structure in the 1970s, and from there to the high-energy and more open (bay-like) lagoon of today.

Most small fossorial proteroglyphous Australian snakes of the genus Simoselaps feed on adult lizards, but the species of one lineage (the semifasciatus group) feed exclusively on the eggs of squamate reptiles. Examination of cleared, alizarin preparations showed that dentition of the saurophagous species is similar to that of other elapids, but dentition of the oophagous taxa is highly modified. The anterior (palatine and maxillary) teeth other than the fangs are reduced in size and number whereas those of the pterygoid (and in S. ‘roperi’, the dentary) are enlarged posteriorly, becoming compressed along a longitudinal plane and angled medially. The shape of the pterygoid and quadrate is also modified. Two Simoselaps species with broader diets (eating both adult lizards and their eggs) show typical ‘saurophagous’ dentition in one case, ‘oophagous’ dentition in the other, showing that either type of dentition can be used to capture and ingest either type of prey. We suggest functional explanations for the dentitional modifications in the egg-eating snakes, primarily in terms of the advantages of applying considerable force to the eggshell. Oophagous modifications within Simoselaps are convergent with those seen in several independently-derived lineages of oophagous colubrid snakes, but (perhaps because of the presence of the fang) differ in having the enlarged blade-like teeth on the pterygoid or dentary rather than the maxilla.