atomic nucleus

Results from various proton-induced two-proton coincidence stud- ies are discussed. It is shown that a consistent interpretation emerges. Conse- quently a multistep interpretation of inclusive proton-induced reactions is ex- plicitly shown to be valid. Inclusive reactions induced by nucleons at projectile energies in the range of 100 to hundreds of MeV have been the subject of extensive experimental and theoretical studies. At present a fairly consistent interpretation of the reaction mechanism is available, especially for the emission of nucleons. At the most basic level the interaction of a nucleon with an atomic nucleus at these incident energies should, due to the de Broglie wavelength of the projectile compared to the size of a bound nucleon, involve an initial NN collision in which the available kinetic is shared between the two colliding nucleons. However, the mean free path of these two intranuclear particles in nuclear matter is such that it is very likely that both will su...

Nuclear Equation of State: How can we learn about Neutron Stars from Atomic Nuclei? DINESH SHETTY, SHERRY YENNELLO, GEORGE SOULIOTIS, Cyclotron Institute, Texas A&M University -The structure and the stability of a neutron star, a dense and neutron-rich object formed in a supernova collapse, depends on a complex relation between the pressure, density and temperature, known as the nuclear Equation Of State (EOS). The determination of the nuclear EOS is crucial for studying many astrophysical problems such as the cooling of neutron star, determining its maximum mass, radius, etc. I will show how by studying the structure of neutron-rich nuclei and the dynamics of collision between them in terrestrial experiments, one can learn about the nuclear equation of state.

This paper demonstrates that centers at all levels of organization—from the cell nucleus to central gravitational potentials of galaxies—perform identical functional roles (not identical mechanisms). Using empirical data from biology, physics, and cosmology, I identify five functional criteria that every center satisfies: (1) system cohesion, (2) establishment of stability conditions, (3) maintenance of organizational form, (4) enabling of processes, and (5) establishment of boundary and specific internal environment.

The analysis covers four scales: nucleoplasm (cellular), atomic nucleus, stellar center (Sun), and galactic center (central gravitational potential), spanning a scale range of 10³⁶. Negative controls confirm that the criteria are discriminative—only centers pass all five criteria simultaneously.

These findings support the Generative Dynamics framework (C₀ + γ → S) by showing that centers are not passive points but active generative sources with consistent functional signatures across all scales.

By analyzing publications that report observations of excess energy and transmutation of elements, conditions are established that are favorable for nuclear reactions without overcoming the Coulomb barrier. At the same time, luminous objects with anomalous properties are often mentioned. The most famous among them is ball lightning, consisting of a spherical thin shell of highly compressed air, in which ordinary white light circulates. The air molecules in the shell are extremely densely packed, which explains the long lifetime of circulating light, which is 3 orders of magnitude longer than the lifetime of sunlight in the earth's atmosphere. However, close packing of molecules is not enough, since there are no reactions in liquids and solids. An assumption has been made that atoms are characterized by an additional parameter that determines the phases of oscillations, that is, atoms are oscillators. To exchange energy, the phases of oscillations in the oscillators must differ. This condition is not satisfied at steady state in liquids and solids, but may occasionally be satisfied when air is compressed in objects with circulating light. It has been shown that cavitation bubbles that arise during water cavitation also belong to such objects. Evidence is provided that during cavitation of water, excess energy is observed with the formation of new neon nuclei. A table is given of possible nuclear reactions between identical nuclei, which are accompanied by the appearance of new nuclei and excess energy. It is shown that in all reactions the energy of one of the resulting nuclei is less than the energy of the original nucleus, and the energy of the other is greater. This indicates that during such reactions there was an exchange of energy between the nuclei. Similar processes take place in coupled oscillators. This is an additional argument that nuclei are oscillators, the exchange of energy between which is possible without their collision and overcoming the Coulomb barrier. The requirements for maximum output of excess energy are analyzed. It is shown that these requirements are met during hydrodynamic cavitation.

In contrast to nuclear reactions called Cold Fusion, which does not have reliable experimental confirmation, we consider another type of nuclear reaction, based on numerous experiments in which nuclear reactions occur without overcoming the Coulomb barrier. These reactions are usually associated with luminous objects with anomalous properties, the anomalies of which are responsible for circulating light, which ensures a dense packing of molecules in a shell of compressed gas, where it circulates. However, close packing of molecules is not enough for nuclear reactions to occur, since such reactions do not occur in liquids and solids. This is explained by the fact that the interaction between identical adjacent atoms is determined by another parameter-the phases of the oscillations existing in them, that is, the atoms are oscillators. To exchange energy, the phases of oscillations in the oscillators must differ. This condition is not satisfied in a steady state in liquids and solids, but can sometimes be satisfied when air is compressed in objects with circulating light. Therefore, this type of reaction will henceforth be called Nuclear reactions between identical adjacent atoms (NRBIAA). It is shown that cavitation bubbles that arise during cavitation of water also relate to objects with circulating light. Evidence is provided that during the cavitation of water, excess energy is observed with the formation of new neon nuclei.

In 2024, a publication appeared presenting the results of experimental studies of water after cavitation. It was shown that in this case, new elements appear, which can only be the result of nuclear reactions. A comparison of the known conditions in cavitation bubbles and the known conditions necessary for the implementation of nuclear reactions showed that these conditions have nothing in common. Therefore, both conditions require clarification. The conditions in cavitation bubbles were corrected by studying a special case of cavitation bubbles in singlebubble sonoluminescence, the explanation of the anomalous properties of which became possible only after explaining the nature of ball lightning. Since the physical parameters of ball lightning are known, the possibility of nuclear reactions with such parameters was considered. It turned out that the reactions are possible between the identical nuclei of two neighboring atoms, sharply brought together for a relatively long time, provided that the nuclei interact as coupled oscillators. Possible types of nuclear reactions for such a case are given. It is shown that a bubble not only extracts nuclear energy in thermal form but also thermal energy in the same bubble is converted into mechanical energy during the expansion of the bubble due to heating. Thus, the bubble can be considered not only as a means of extracting nuclear energy but also as a means for the subsequent conversion of nuclear energy from thermal to mechanical form, i.e. as a miniature NPP.

In 2024, a publication appeared presenting the results of experimental studies of water after cavitation. It was shown that in this case, new elements appear, which can only be the result of nuclear reactions. A comparison of the known conditions in cavitation bubbles and the known conditions necessary for the implementation of nuclear reactions showed that these conditions have nothing in common. Therefore, both conditions require clarification. The conditions in cavitation bubbles were corrected by studying a special case of cavitation bubbles in singlebubble sonoluminescence, the explanation of the anomalous properties of which became possible only after explaining the nature of ball lightning. Since the physical parameters of ball lightning are known, the possibility of nuclear reactions with such parameters was considered. It turned out that the reactions are possible between the identical nuclei of two neighboring atoms, sharply brought together for a relatively long time, provided that the nuclei interact as coupled oscillators. Possible types of nuclear reactions for such a case are given. It is shown that a bubble not only extracts nuclear energy in thermal form but also thermal energy in the same bubble is converted into mechanical energy during the expansion of the bubble due to heating. Thus, the bubble can be considered not only as a means of extracting nuclear energy but also as a means for the subsequent conversion of nuclear energy from thermal to mechanical form, i.e. as a miniature NPP.

In contrast to nuclear reactions called Cold Fusion, which does not have reliable experimental confirmation, we consider another type of nuclear reaction, based on numerous experiments in which nuclear reactions occur without overcoming the Coulomb barrier. These reactions are usually associated with luminous objects with anomalous properties, the anomalies of which are responsible for circulating light, which ensures a dense packing of molecules in a shell of compressed gas, where it circulates. However, close packing of molecules is not enough for nuclear reactions to occur, since such reactions do not occur in liquids and solids. This is explained by the fact that the interaction between identical adjacent atoms is determined by another parameter-the phases of the oscillations existing in them, that is, the atoms are oscillators. To exchange energy, the phases of oscillations in the oscillators must differ. This condition is not satisfied in a steady state in liquids and solids, but can sometimes be satisfied when air is compressed in objects with circulating light. Therefore, this type of reaction will henceforth be called Nuclear reactions between identical adjacent atoms (NRBIAA). It is shown that cavitation bubbles that arise during cavitation of water also relate to objects with circulating light. Evidence is provided that during the cavitation of water, excess energy is observed with the formation of new neon nuclei.

The title of the article alone causes indignation and anger among nuclear physicists, who are sure that such a thing is impossible and fundamentally contradicts modern concepts. However, there are several reliably established and easily reproduced phenomena that are accompanied by a change in the elemental composition and the emergence of excess energy, which is visible to the naked eye. In most cases, these effects occur in air bubbles that arise from water when the water pressure decreases. Knowing the physical conditions in such bubbles, one can form an idea of the possible mechanisms of nuclear reactions that contribute to the emergence of excess energy. Reliable information about the physical conditions in air bubbles did not exist until the anomalous phenomena in bubbles during single-bubble sonoluminescence were explained. Such an explanation became possible after the discovery of the world of circulating light, which contains luminous objects with anomalous properties. The most famous of these objects are natural ball lightning. Luminous bubbles that arise during single-bubble sonoluminescence also belong to the world of circulating light. Taking into account the physical conditions inside ball lightning, the method of implementing nuclear reactions, which occur in a medium of rapidly compressed, densely packed air molecules, is considered. The nuclei of adjacent atoms act as identical coupled oscillators, between which energy is exchanged at a distance. A table of possible nuclear reactions between different elements is given, from the analysis of which it can be concluded that there are grounds to assume that the considered method of interaction of nuclei is carried out in nature. Arguments are given in favor of this method of implementing nuclear reactions.

Under the assumption that identical isotopes, when brought very close to each other at the minimum possible distance for a relatively long time, can exchange nucleons with the preservation of their total number and the release of excess energy, it is shown that some of the isotopes formed in this case cannot enter into such reactions, i.e. they can be considered as spent fuel. An analysis of the isotopic composition of the earth's crust showed that more than 85% of the isotopes in the earth's crust are spent fuel. It is suggested that similar nuclear reactions with a gradual accumulation of spent fuel took place in the bowels of the Earth, which ultimately led to a decrease in their intensity, a decrease in temperature and the formation of a solidified crust. Arguments are given in favor of the fact that similar reactions continue in the bowels of the Earth at the present time. It is assumed that the appearance of heavy elements in the earth's crust, the presence of an additional heat source ensuring the thermal balance of the Earth, and the relatively young age of uranium U238 in the earth's crust may also be the result of similar reactions.

Part 1 presents nuclear phenomena obtained through the analysis of particle collisions. However, this knowledge cannot explain the change in the elemental composition of the Earth's crust, which formed from interstellar matter at relatively low temperatures when collisions were absent. Another type of nuclear reaction, which resulted in the formation of the current elemental composition of the Earth's crust, are considered.

The relativistic mean field theory is applied to study some exotic properties of neutron rich nuclei as recently observed, namely, extension of the drip-line for $F$ nuclei from $^{29}F$ to $^{31}F$ and the appearence of a new shell closure at neutron number N=16. We find $^{31}F$ to be bound against one-neutron dripping but unbound only marginally for two neutron separation. The calculated functional dependence of one-neutron separation energy with neutron number for different values of $T_Z = (N-Z)/2$ signals a new shell closure at N=16 for neutron rich nuclei with $T_Z\ge 3$. This is further corroborated from the study of the deformation and the gap across the Fermi surface in these light nuclei.

Since neutrons and protons are the main components of the atomic nucleus and studying their nature helps in understanding the nature of the atomic nucleus and its properties, this study has done to reveal some of the properties of neutrons depending upon the postulated properties of electron and proton in the previous study (photon as a basic unit), in this study; it was postulated that electron and proton are the main components of the neutron, based on this postulation some basic properties of neutron like structure, mass, lifetime, beta decay, and magnetic moment have been deduced and also the nature of neutrino and anti-neutrino has been illustrated as a result of studying beta decay.

It is argued that the scale of atomic masses rests far too heavily on two possibly dubious pieces of evidence. These are the nineteenth-century determination of the atomic weight of hydrogen, and early mass spectrographic work on the determination of atomic masses. The determination of the atomic weight of hydrogen is possibly prone to overestimation because of adventitious enrichment in deuterium during the experimental procedure. The mass spectrographic work is likely to be susceptible to both systemic and theoretical errors deriving from the assumptions employed; it is also possibly enmeshed in the confusion between the (then prevailing) chemical and physical scales of atomic weight. All these ambiguities may well have led to a dubious confirmation of the atomic mass of hydrogen. The idea of the 'mass defect', deriving from this work, formed a corner-stone of the subsequently developed theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus. A particular problem with the mass-defect idea is that, by mass-energy equivalence, heavier atoms would be less stable than lighter ones. (Thus, the mass defect may well be an artefact deriving from the inherent inaccuracies of early mass-spectrographic studies.) All this has apparently led to a dubious theory of nuclear structure. Thus, the balance between the electrostatic and strong forces should favour the latter with increasing atomic mass -contrary to current theory, which apparently neglects to take account of the predominance of nearest-neighbour interactions between nucleons. Consequently, the origins of nuclear energy, whether by fission or fusion, seem unclear. Taken as a whole, these arguments indicate a fundamental reappraisal of current theoretical ideas: It would appear that mass-energy equivalence may be involved more fundamentally and insidiously in the generation of nuclear energy; it is also possible that the radionuclides arise by the malformation of nuclei during their creation, a consequence of their mass and size.

Neutron scattering is a very high-performance method for studying the structure and dynamics of condensed matter with similar approaches in wide ranges of space and time, matching dimensions in space from single atoms to macromolecules and in time from atomic vibrations over crystal phonons to low-lying transitions in the microwave range, and to motions of large molecular units. Concerning the number and depth of physical concepts, neutron scattering may be compared to modern nuclear magnetic resonance. Neutrons have contributed essential results to the understanding of atomic and molecular processes and are, in this respect, complementary to other materials science probes. Among others, three properties of thermal neutrons make them especially appropriate for such work: the neutron mass is similar to atomic masses, and both neutron energies and the wavelengths of the neutron material wave match typical values for condensed matter. A further important feature of neutron scattering, making it especially valuable in biochemistry and polymer sciences, is that hydrogen and deuterium atoms very significantly and specifically contribute to the signal in both diffraction and spectroscopy. Additionally, neutrons are scattered at the nuclei and directly reflect the nuclear structure and motions. Results from neutron scattering are of great general interest. This paper aims to provide an introduction for chemists on a level understandable also to students and researchers who are not going to become part of the neutron community and will not be involved in the experiments, but shall be able to understand the basic concepts of the method and its relevance to modern chemistry. The paper focuses on basic theory, typical experiments, and some examples demonstrating the applications. As for many modern experimental techniques, the interpretation of the results of neutron scattering is based on theoretical models and requires a significant mathematical overhead. Most results are only meaningful when compared with computer simulations. For understanding this, in this paper, the theory of scattering is developed, starting with intuitive models and presenting typical concepts such as the scattering triangle, energy and momentum transfer, and the relation of inelastic and elastic scattering to space-and time-dependent information. The interaction of neutrons with matter, scattering cross sections, beam attenuation, and coherent versus incoherent scattering are explained in detail. Two further typical concepts that are not generally familiar to scientists outside the community are the use of wave and particle equivalence, and of handling results as a scattering function that depends simultaneously on momentum and energy transfers. The possibility of obtaining neutron beams for scattering experiments at a few research centers around high-performance sources is explained, and experimentally relevant features of research reactors and spallation sources are mentioned. As neutron experiments always have to deal with small flux and extended beams and shielding, experimental conditions are very far away from laboratory methods where handling of samples and instruments is concerned. Experimental details are given for making experiments more understandable and familiarizing the reader with the method. Related to this are extended possibilities for handling samples in a large variety of different environments. In a further part of the manuscript, a variety of techniques and typical instruments are presented, together with some characteristic applications bringing alive the theory developed so far. This covers powder diffraction and structure of liquid water, triple-axis spectrometers and lattice phonons, backscattering spectrometry and rotational tunneling, time-of-flight spectrometry, and simultaneously probing the energy and shape of low lying vibrations and diffusion, filter spectrometer and vibrational spectroscopy without selection rules, small-angle neutron scattering and protein unfolding, as well as micelles, neutron spin echo spectroscopy, and polymer dynamics.

The Pauli exclusion principle would be violated if three atomic electrons would occupy the atomic K shell or if three protons or three neutrons would be in the nuclear ls,,s shell. Accelerator mass spectrometry at the Munich accelerator laboratory was used to look for such non-Paulian atoms of so% and % and for non-Pa&an nuclei of z with three protons in the nuclear Is,,, shell. A time-of-flight technique was used for the identification of non-Paulian % and %. In the case of Ar, post-accelerated hydrogen-like ions were looked for. The following limits were obtained: [2%]/[20Ne] < 2 x 10m2r, ['"z]n"Ar] c 4x lo-" and [%]/]Li] < 1.3 X lo-l4 for binding energies of z between 0 and 40 MeV.

Due to its large nuclear octupole deformation and high atomic mass, the radioactive Ra-225 isotope is a favorable case for an electric dipole moment (EDM); it is particularly sensitive to CP-violating interactions in the nuclear medium. We have developed a coldatom approach of measuring the atomic EDM of Ra-225 atoms held stationary in an optical dipole trap. We previously demonstrated this technique with an initial experimental upper limit of |d(225Ra)|<5e-22 e-cm (95% C.L.), and have since improved this limit 36-fold to 1.4e-23 e-cm. This is not only the first time laser-cooled atoms have been used to measure an EDM, but also the first time the EDM of any octupole deformed species has been measured. Upcoming improvements are expected to dramatically improve our sensitivity, and significantly improve on the search for new physics in several sectors.

This work is an extension of the Helical Electron Model (proposed by the same author), applied to protons and neutrons. The Helical Model of the Electron [1] postulated that the electron is a unit charge point particle that orbits at the speed of light around a point in space, forming a vortex or current loop. The circular motion of the charge creates an angular momentum and its associated magnetic moment. By analogy we assume that all subatomic particles have the same structure as the Helical Electron, differing mainly by their charge and mass. The proton and neutron follow the same model of the electron, with radius equal to its reduced Compton wavelength. Compton wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass, so subatomic particles are smaller the higher is its mass. Both the proton and the neutron are about 2,000 times smaller than the electron. This size coincides with the experiments performed by Rutherford about the atomic nucleus, which is in the order of 1 fm. The exact value of the radius internationally accepted is 0,8768 fm. In 2010 [2] an experiment with Muonic Hydrogen was published, obtaining a result of 0,8418 fm for the proton radius. The experiment was repeated in 2013 [3] increasing the resolution and ultimately obtaining a value of 0,8408 fm. This value represents a difference of 4% compared to the calculated value according to previous experiments. This difference is considered excessive and has not yet been explained. The problem is known as "proton radius puzzle". The radius of the Helical Proton is just its reduced Compton wavelength, equivalent to 0.2103 fm As a curiosity, if we multiply this radius by 4, we obtain the value of 0.8412 fm, which fits perfectly with the new measurements of the radius of the proton.

This work is an extension of the Helical Electron Model (proposed by the same author), applied to protons and neutrons. Radius of the Nucleon The Helical Model of the Electron [1] postulated that the electron is a unit charge point particle that orbits at the speed of light around a point in space, forming a vortex or current loop. The circular motion of the charge creates an angular momentum and its associated magnetic moment. By analogy we assume that all subatomic particles have the same structure as the Helical Electron, differing mainly by their charge and mass. The proton and neutron follow the same model of the electron, with radius equal to its reduced Compton wavelength. Compton wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass, so subatomic particles are smaller the higher is its mass. Both the proton and the neutron are about 2,000 times smaller than the electron. This size coincides with the experiments performed by Rutherford about the atomic nucleus, which is in the ord...

In this paper we address the adequacy of various approximate methods of including Coulomb distortion effects in (e, e ′ ) reactions by comparing to an exact treatment using Dirac-Coulomb distorted waves. In particular, we examine approximate methods and analyses of (e, e ′ ) reactions developed by Traini et al. using a high energy approximation of the distorted waves and phase shifts due to Lenz and Rosenfelder. This approximation has been used in the separation of longitudinal and transverse structure functions in a number of (e, e ′ ) experiments including the newly published 208 P b(e, e ′ ) data from Saclay. We find that the assumptions used by Traini and others are not valid for typical (e, e ′ ) experiments on medium and heavy nuclei, and hence the extracted structure functions based on this formalism are not reliable. We describe an improved approximation which is also based on the high energy approximation of Lenz and Rosenfelder and the analyses of Knoll and compare our results to the Saclay data. At each step of our analyses we compare our approximate results to the exact distorted wave results and can therefore quantify the errors made by our approximations. We find that for light 2 sin 4 θ 2 , and S L and S T are the longitudinal and transverse structure functions which depend only on the momentum transfer q and the energy transfer ω. By keeping the momentum and energy transfers fixed while varying the electron energy E and scattering angle θ e , it is possible to extract the two structure functions with two measurements. However, when the electron wavefunctions are not Dirac plane waves, but rather are distorted by the static Coulomb field of the target nucleus, such a simple formulation as given in Eq. ( ) is no longer possible and, in general, the cross section does not separate into the sum of longitudinal and transverse structure functions with coefficients which only depend on the electron kinematics. Clearly the size of the Coulomb distortion effects depends on the charge of the target nucleus and on the energy of the electrons. In general, Coulomb effects are not too large near the peaks of cross sections, but can have greatly magnified effects when one extracts "structure functions" by subtracting one cross section from another. For example, in a recent distorted wave calculation [1] of 16 O(e, e ′ p) in the quasielastic region, we found Coulomb effects on the extracted spectroscopic factors to be approximately 3%, while the effects on the extracted fourth structure function was approximately 15%. However, some sort of extraction of structure functions, albeit approximate, is still very appealing since structure functions are sensitive to different aspects of the underlying knockout process or the final state interaction. Furthermore, (e, e ′ ) reactions in the quasielastic

It is shown that the static and dynamic alpha-cluster models of nuclei, which describe an elastic electron scattering, photodisintegration reactions and pion double charge exchange reactions on alpha-cluster nuclei are in favor of the alpha-capture and alpha process of the formation of these nuclei.

The positive parity band structure of odd mass neutron-rich 97 – 103 Y and 99 – 105 Nb nuclei has been studied using microscopic technique known as the projected shell model (PSM) with the deformed single-particle states generated by the standard Nilsson potential. The nuclear structure properties like yrast spectra, energy splitting, moment of inertia, rotational frequencies and reduced transition probabilities B(M1) and B(E2) have been calculated and their comparison with the available experimental data has been made. A shape evolution has also been predicted in these isotopes as one moves from 97 Y to 99 Y and 99 Nb to 101 Nb . The PSM calculations also demonstrate the multi-quasiparticle structure in these nuclei.

Many microscopic theories have been devoted for calculating nuclear masses, binding energies, nucleon separation energies and other global properties. Nucleon separation energy plays an important role in predicting new shell closures in the proton and neutron drip line nuclei. The one and two nucleon separation energies are fundamental properties of the atomic nucleus. The systematic study of proton and neutron separation energies are essential to investigate nuclear structure toward drip lines [1]. In literature it is understood that the energy spend in removing two fermions from a system of identical fermions shows system stability [2]. If the pairing dominates in fermion-fermion interaction, then energy required to separate two fermions for even number of particles will be much higher than odd number. These characteristics can be observed from the study of two neutron separation energy S2n. It is known that in neutron-rich nuclei, odd magic numbers disappear and new ones appear. ...

Photon exchange due to nuclear bremsstrahlung during nuclear collisions can cause Coulomb excitation in the projectile and the target nuclei. The corresponding process originated in nuclear timescales can also be observed in atomic phenomenon experimentally if it delayed by at least with an attosecond or longer timescales. We have found that this happens due to a mechanism involving the Eisenbud-Wigner-Smith time delay process. We have estimated photoionization time delays in atomic collisions utilizing the nonrelativistic version of random phase approximation with exchange and Hartree-Fock methods. We present three representative processes in which we can observe the phenomena in attosecond timescales even though they originate from excitations in the zeptosecond timescales. Thus the work represents an investigation of parallels between two neighboring areas of physics. Furthermore the present work suggests new possibilities for atomic physics research near the Coulomb barrier energy, where the laser is replaced by nuclear bremsstrahlung.

Nuclear pairing correlations are known to play an important role in various single-particle and collective aspects of nuclear structure. After the first idea by A. Bohr, B. Mottelson and D. Pines on similarity of nuclear pairing to electron superconductivity, S.T. Belyaev gave a thorough analysis of the manifestations of pairing in complex nuclei. The current revival of interest in nuclear pairing is connected to the shift of modern nuclear physics towards nuclei far from stability; many loosely bound nuclei are particle-stable only due to the pairing. The theoretical methods borrowed from macroscopic superconductivity turn out to be insufficient for finite systems as nuclei, in particular for the cases of weak pairing and proximity of continuum states. We suggest a simple numerical procedure of exact solution of the nuclear pairing problem and discuss the physical features of this complete solution. We show also how the continuum states can be naturally included in the consideration bridging the gap between the structure and reactions. The path from coherent pairing to chaos and thermalization and perspectives of new theoretical approaches based on the full solution of pairing are discussed.

In any first approach toward a nuclear structure problem, one presumes the nucleons to be elementary particles. The failure or success of this approach may then instruct us something about the significance of sub-nuclear degrees of freedom. The Deng-Fan potential, although extensively used in molecular dynamics to reproduce several observables for the atomic-atomic and atomic-molecular interactions, is parametrized for nuclear systems to fit low-energy observables. By exploiting the variable phase approach (VPA) to potential scattering, phase parameters, cross-sections and analyzing powers are estimated for the nucleon-nucleon and nucleon-nucleus systems. Our results show good concurrence with the earlier theoretical and experimental data within this simple model of interaction. K e y w o r d s: Deng-Fan potential, variable phase approach, scattering phase parameters, cross-section, analyzing power, n-p and n-d systems.

Because logic excludes that protons and neutrons have an outer layer to hold
quarks together, there must by definition be a structural relationship between the
quarks themselves to avoid jeopardizing the stability of the nucleus. To
substantiate this, it is necessary to move away from the beaten track in an attempt
to better understand the functioning of the nucleus and the atom as a whole.
The structure of the nucleus of the atom has been re-mapped and spatially
rearranged and, in its simplicity, explains completely the inner workings of that
atomic nucleus. It became immediately clear that it was only a small glimpse into
a whole new world that has remained hidden so far and undoubtedly will open
new fields of research in both physics and chemistry.

T he history of nuclear force theory often includes a mention that the inverse square law forces could not explain how the nucleus was held together? The characteristics of strength that overwhelms proton repulsion, charge independence that includes the neutrons, and extremely short range were never before seen. These were compelling evidence that a new force had been discovered. However, recent reconsideration of the Coulomb force equation suggests that one of its two asymptotes has been neglected. When graphed with distance on the horizontal scale and force on the vertical scale, the classical Coulomb force equation follows the horizontal asymptote and approaches zero force at infinite distance. But going in the other direction, toward zero distance, at some point it switches to unfamiliar behavior that follows a vertical asymptote, with force increasing exponentially without bound. To the extent that this is undocumented, it cannot be considered classical. The point of maximum curvature, the distance where it takes a nearly right-angle turn, depends on the charges. For the nucleons'-1/3 e and +2/3 e charges, this change occurs at about 0.15 fm, conveniently about 20% of the radius of a nucleon. At closer distances, the force increases so fast that at about 0.08 fm apart, or about 10% of the radius of a nucleon, these charges would experience a mutual attraction of 25,000 N. This is enough to make it a contender for the force that is holding the atomic nucleus together. Thus, theoretical or experimental measures of attraction may suggest a distance between charges. Fractional charges were unknown in the 1930s, but their existence and presence in both protons and neutrons, along with other factors presented, challenge the 80-year old conclusion that the nucleus could not be held together by electromagnetic forces.

It is well known that the electrostatic force has infinite range, but an unheralded property of this force is that as the distance between charges approaches zero the force increases without bound. Applied to the atomic nucleus, if a positive fractional charge in one nucleon (proton or neutron) can get close enough to a negative fractional charge in a neighboring nucleon, the attractive force between them would bind these nucleons in an electrostatic bond. For example, at a distance of 5% of a nucleon radius they will experience an attractive force of -25 kN. This is orders of magnitude stronger than the repulsive force between whole protons in the nucleus. Contrary to what is normally expected from the electrostatic force, such a bond would have a short range, shorter than the radius of a nucleon. Ironically, this charge-based bond would match the nuclear force’s characteristic of charge independence (affecting both neutrons and protons), because the required positive and negative ...

The Pauli exclusion principle would be violated if three atomic electrons would occupy the atomic K shell or if three protons or three neutrons would be in the nuclear ls,,s shell. Accelerator mass spectrometry at the Munich accelerator laboratory was used to look for such non-Paulian atoms of so% and % and for non-Pa&an nuclei of z with three protons in the nuclear Is,,, shell. A time-of-flight technique was used for the identification of non-Paulian % and %. In the case of Ar, post-accelerated hydrogen-like ions were looked for. The following limits were obtained: [2%]/[20Ne] < 2 x 10m2r, ['"z]n"Ar] c 4x lo-" and [%]/]Li] < 1.3 X lo-l4 for binding energies of z between 0 and 40 MeV.

In recent years, several successful applications of the Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) have emerged in nuclear physics and high-energy physics, as well as in biology, chemistry, meteorology, and other fields of science. A major goal of nuclear theory is to predict nuclear structure and nuclear reactions from the underlying theory of the strong interactions, Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD). With access to powerful High Performance Computing (HPC) systems, several ab initio approaches, such as the No-Core Shell Model (NCSM), have been developed to calculate the properties of atomic nuclei. However, to accurately solve for the properties of atomic nuclei, one faces immense theoretical and computational challenges. The present study proposes a feed-forward ANN method for predicting the properties of atomic nuclei like ground state energy and ground state point proton root-mean-square (rms) radius based on NCSM results in computationally accessible basis spaces. The designed ANNs are suf...

The microscopic origin of the γ-softness (fluctuations in the triaxiality parameter γ of the nuclear shape) observed in atomic nuclei is studied in the framework of the triaxial projected shell model approach, which is based on a multi-quasiparticle configuration space generated from a deformed mean-field. It is demonstrated that the coupling to quasiparticle excitations drives the system from a γ-rigid to a γ-soft pattern. As an illustrative example for a γ-soft nucleus, a detailed study has been performed for the 104 Ru nucleus. The experimental energies and a large sample of measured E2 matrix elements available for this nucleus are reproduced quite accurately. The shape invariant analysis of the calculated E2 matrix elements elucidates the γ-soft nature of 104 Ru.

We study both experimentally and theoretically the creation of a new physical entity, a particle in which the proton and electron form a stable pair with a tiny size typical for a nucleon. A new theoretical approach to study atomic, sub atomic and nuclear systems is suggested. In the framework of this new approach, which takes into account a submicroscopic concept of physics, we discuss similar experimental results of other researchers dealing with low energy nuclear reactions in a solid, plasma, sonofusion and the electrostatic field generated by piezocrystals. It is shown that the formation of sub atomic particles, which we name subatoms, involves an inerton cloud of an atom from the environment. The inerton cloud, as a carrier of mass, is absorbed by the electron and proton, which strongly couples these two particles in a new stable entity-the subhydrogen. Besides, we have generated a subhelium and argue the existence of subdeuterium. In addition to these subatoms there exist also nuclear pairs formed by a subatom with proton, deuteron and neutron.

The nuclear quadrupole moment (Q) of the 5/2 + isomeric state of 111 Cd, of particular importance to the interpretation of Perturbed Angular Correlation experiments in condensed matter, was determined by combining existing PAC data with high-level ab initio (CCSD(T)) calculations for Cd-dimethyl and hybrid density functional theory for metallic Cd. A revised value of Q = .641(25) b is found, much reduced from earlier estimates. Using the new result together with the values for other Cd isotopes from atomic data, also recently revised, the trend of Q for the 11/2 − states in Cd is in perfect agreement with new nuclear covariant density functional theory calculations. Similar theoretical work for metallic Zn and the ZnS molecule, combined with atomic calculations, also results in an equivalent reduction for the reference value of the 67 Zn 5/2 − ground-state quadrupole moment to Q = .125(5) b.

Atomic nuclei are made of nucleons, protons and neutrons, composed of quarks strongly interacting via gluons. "How such complex objects as particles and nuclei are built?", remains a fundamental question. A new 'frontier' of subatomic physics is the exploration of exotic nuclei, elements and isotopes not stable enough to have survived on Earth. Exotic nuclei populate vast unknown regions of the nuclear chart where many unexpected structures have recently been discovered. Exotic nuclei synthesized in laboratory allow large variation of the neutron and proton chemical composition of nuclear systems needed to uncover the true nature of the subatomic structures and to understand the origin of elements in the Universe. To cite this article:

Probing the charge density distributions in materials at atomic scale remains an extremely demanding task, particularly in real space. However, recent advances in differential phase contrast-scanning transmission electron microscopy (DPC-STEM) bring this possibility closer by directly visualizing the atomic electric field. DPC-STEM at atomic resolutions measures how a sub-angstrom electron probe passing through a material is affected by the atomic electric field, the field between the nucleus and the surrounding electrons. Here, we perform a fully quantitative analysis which allows us to probe the charge density distributions inside atoms, including both the positive nuclear and the screening electronic charges, with subatomic resolution and in real space. By combining state-of-the-art DPC-STEM experiments with advanced electron scattering simulations we are able to map the spatial distribution of the electron cloud within individual atomic columns. This work constitutes a crucial step toward the direct atomic scale determination of the local charge redistributions and modulations taking place in materials systems.

Background: Atomic physics and nuclear matter physics are often exclusively studied. However, atomic properties are a direct function of nuclear properties. Establishing a mathematical relationship between nuclear and atomic properties could serve the interest of nuclear and atomic engineers. Nuclear - and atomic-based instrumentation engineering and nuclear medicine (and perhaps atomic medicine) applications could be the benefits. Objectives: The research is undertaken to 1) link nuclear property, the mass-radius of the nucleon, and ionization energy of hydrogen via the derivation of appropriate equation and 2) determine the mass-radii of the nucleons and some leptons. Methods: Theoretical and computational methods. Results and Discussion: As applicable to the previous results in the literature, the larger the mass of the elementary particles, the longer the radii. For the particles investigated, the order of the radius is muon (m-)