Buddhist Studies

In recent years, a new business sector has emerged: social enterprise. Social enterprises focus on a social or environmental mission rather than simply maximizing profits.  In the UK, social enterprise is understood to be unlike a charity in that it has a profit motive. But it is unlike a traditional corporation in that its primary directive is to further its social or environmental mission.  The aim of social enterprise is not to maximise profits for external shareholdres, but rather to improve wellbeing for humans and the natural world. Income comes from trading activity, grants, donations, or other sources. This paper proposes that social enterprise is a business form especially well‐suited to Buddhists, given its ethical foundation of commitment to social or environmental missions. It explores what social enterprise is, some of its distinguishing characteristics, and its relevance to Buddhism. The paper further proposes several ways in which the Buddhist community and social enterprises might look to identify and strengthen connections for mutual benefit.

This article offers a comparative analysis on mindfulness from mindfulness-based therapies in the contemporary literature and from Buddhist meditation practices in the Pāli Canon. This includes a review of the presiding definitions of mindfulness, recent scientific findings in the literature and the current theories on the underlying mechanisms of mindfulness. The meditation practices from the Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR) programme are compared to the origins of mindfulness of breathing meditations from the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (MN 10). Further, recent research into the cultivation of skilful states of mind including compassion, self-compassion, loving-kindness, equanimity and
sympathetic joy are reviewed and compared to an anthology of texts from the Pāli Canon. Ethical issues emerging from the convergence of science and Buddhist philosophy are also discussed for further consideration.

Upekkhā has been translated from Pali as " hedonic neutrality or indifference, " the " zero point between joy and sorrow, " and " disinterestedness, neutral feeling, equanimity. " In Buddhist philosophy, equanimity (upekkhā) is most typically recognised as one of the four brahma-vihāras (also mettā, karuṇā, and muditā). In meditation practice, equanimity is also commonly known as the faculty most prominent when experiencing the fourth jhāna. However, in the commentaries of the Atthasālinī and the Visuddhimagga, Bhikkhu Buddhaghosa defines equanimity in ten different ways. These ten kinds of equanimity are: a) six-factored equanimity, b) equanimity as a brahma-vihāra, c) equanimity as an enlightenment factor, d) equanimity of energy, e) equanimity about formations, f) equanimity as a feeling, g) equanimity about insight, h) equanimity as specific neutrality, i) equanimity of jhāna, j) equanimity of purification. This article will discuss each of these ten kinds of equanimity in detail, sourced from the canonical literature, for a multifaceted understanding of the faculty of equanimity. This discussion raises the question why, in both commentaries, Bhikkhu Buddhaghosa placed such an emphasis on equanimity as a faculty to be cultivated. It is proposed here that it is because, according to the Cūḷahatthipadopama Sutta, the faculties of mindfulness and equanimity were most predominant in his mind when the Buddha comprehended the three knowledges and became fully enlightened. Thus, while the mental practice of equanimity, in general, might be considered uninteresting, with some reading of the canonical literature, equanimity may be appreciated as a deeply profound and beautiful state of mind with multiple facets in its application.

This paper examines Buddhist teachings as they relate to economics, a central aspect of worldly life, and focuses on capitalism as it is a highly influential modern economic system. To what extent is a capitalist economy compatible with Buddhist teachings, and how do teachings of the Pāli Canon inform engagement with it? These questions are addressed centering on lay activity in the lay economy.

This paper takes a ‘fundamentalist’ view of Buddhist ethics as described by Keown (2001, pp.xiv-xv), considering not only Pāli Canon scriptures but also what Buddhaghosa termed ‘in conformity with scripture’ (Keown, 2001, p.14). So although the Buddha never addressed macroeconomics as it exists today, from his guidance on household management one can extrapolate much that is relevant to modern economics.

Section I of this paper aims to clear up a serious and longstanding misunderstanding about the basic Buddhist orientation towards wealth. Section II examines core aspects of capitalist economies and their compatibility with Buddhist teachings of the Pāli Canon. Section III provides guidance from those Buddhist teachings that inform engagement in modern capitalism and includes examples from Japan and the UK.

The Mahā-Maṅgala Sutta (Sn 258-269) is an important Buddhist text well-known and oft-used in Asia, but it is much less familiar to Western Buddhists. Through documents-based research of primary and secondary sources in English, Pāli, and Chinese, as well as interviews with senior Western Dhamma teachers, this dissertation aims to provide greater understanding of the Mahā-Maṅgala Sutta (MMS) by addressing the content and contexts of the Mahā-Maṅgala Sutta, exploring its authenticity, historical and current uses, and assessing its potential for greater integration into Western Buddhist practice.

Placement of the Mahā-Maṅgala Sutta and its closely-related texts in the Pāli Canon is outlined, and the authenticity of the MMS as an early text is analysed. Historical context of the sutta (sūtra) is presented, focusing on transmission and its use in edification and devotional practice in Southern Buddhism. The existence and significance of related Tibetan and Chinese texts are reviewed.

Discussion of hermeneutics focuses on four elements of 'improvisational hermeneutics’: author and author’s intention, text, interpreter, and interpretive community (Benson, 2006: 200-204). These elements are considered in the context of an ‘improvisational Buddhist hermeneutic’ and applied to the MMS, using early Buddhist texts to identify key themes in the Buddha’s early teaching, addressing challenges in translating the MMS into English, reviewing previous MMS interpretations, and broadly overviewing how Buddhist interpretive communities currently use the sutta.

Information based on interviews with seven senior Dhamma teachers is presented, including: current uses and key aspects of the sutta, obstacles and challenges to its use, and opportunities. Opportunities are related to Benson’s improvisational hermeneutics and include: improving translations, fostering fuller understanding of the role of ethics, reframing ‘simple’ as worthwhile, and encouraging openness and diligence. The strength of the MMS as a key teaching is affirmed by the respondents’ average rating of the MMS as 9.36 of 10.00 for potential usefulness in teaching. This study concludes that the MMS is a highly useful and currently under-utilised text in terms of Western Buddhist practice.

Fibromyalgia is a chronic illness characterised by musculoskeletal pain, pain catastrophizing and associated sleep disturbance, depression and anxiety symptoms. Mindfulness meditation training in its group counselling form has been found to have a salutary effect on chronic pain as well as reduce relapse in depression. To date, there has been substantial research on the effects of mindfulness for the treatment of fibromyalgia, however the outcomes have been inconsistent. Therefore, this literature review summarised the most recent research and their findings, as well as discusses the mechanisms of mindfulness in the treatment of chronic pain and depression. In general, there are current issues in reaching conclusive evidence on the efficacy of mindfulness for fibromyalgia due to the lack of robustness in the research methodology, small sample sizes, inconsistencies in the mindfulness programs and the inherent heterogeneity of the illness.  A consistent and standardised mindfulness meditation program specifically tailored for the treatment of fibromyalgia is still required.

An essential part of forest stewardship involves the careful planning and management of young trees and seedlings. When an opening has been created in the forest canopy, either from timber harvest or following a natural disturbance event such as windstorm or fire, there is an opportunity to influence what plants or trees will become established and thrive. In some situations, natural regeneration will occur in the opening when nearby trees drop seed, reducing the need to plant. In other situations, planting seedlings may be of value. Ensuring adequate regeneration and sustained productivity is at the heart of any scientific silvicultural system. The California Forest Practice Act requires that landowners regenerate their forest after a timber harvest or leave it in a stocked condition with reserved trees. It is required that a stand have a minimum number of trees within 5 years following harvest, and stand conditions are monitored by a California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) inspector. Planning before harvest will go a long way toward reducing costs and quickly securing adequate regeneration, as today' s seedlings will become tomorrow' s crop trees. Re S oURC eS Public agencies Several public agencies can offer information or assistance on vegetation management issues and restoration. California Department of Fish and Game (DFG). A state agency that manages California' s wetlands, wildlife habitats, and ecosystems. See their Web site at http://www.dfg.ca.gov. California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE). A state agency that provides fire protection and natural resource management services. They have seedlings available for sale. Local units can be reached under the State Government listings in the telephone book or at the CAL FIRE Web site, http://www.fire.ca.gov.

Every forest landowner in California should be well aware of the warning "It' s not if, it' s when" a fire will affect your property. California' s forests have evolved with fire, so living in the forest or managing forest lands means anticipating and preparing for fire. This publication gives you background information about fire and fuel management as well as some practices that can help reduce the risk of a catastrophic wildfire occurring on your property.

Part 6 of the 24-part Forest Stewardship Series. The Forest Stewardship Series is a 24-part free online publication that provides owners of California forestland with a comprehensive source of information pertinent to the management and enjoyment of their lands. This information will help you formulate and implement strategies for achieving your personal goals as a landowner. The series provides an introduction to the lifelong study of forest stewardship that is part of owning forest property.